Study of his life nd work maximilien Rubel and Margaret Manale
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- THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-1849
- EUROPE
- THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-1849
EUROPE 1844 The economic distress of the cotton weavers in the Silesian Riesengebirge in Germany is aggravated by the competition of foreign products as well as by the mechanisation of the German weaving industry. Out of misery and frustration the weavers damage local cotton mills and destroy equipment. The revolt is ruthlessly crushed by Prussian military intervention. In Rochdale, England, two dozen Chartists and Owenite workers open a co-operative store called the ‘Equitable Pioneers’. They operate on the principle of selling goods at current market prices and distributing the returns among members according to their pur chases.
1846 Nobles and intellectuals in Galician Poland revolt against the domination of the feudal lords. By simultaneously inciting a peasant revolt against the landowners, the Habsburgs of Austria are able to exploit the general turmoil and assert their hegemony. The formerly independent city of Cracow is annexed to Austria. 1846-47 A new wave of anti-Austrian sentiment is manifested in Italy as Prince Metternich attempts to occupy the Papal city of Ferrara. The Austrians are ultimately forced to withdraw. 1847 A law is passed fixing the 10-hour maximum working day for women and children in Great Britain. Prussia's king Friedrich Wilhelm IV calls a united provincial Diet (Landtag) at Berlin, the first repre sentative body to assemble in Germany for the purpose of advising the king. In France political reform banquets are held in Lille, Strasbourg and Rouen. The banquet scheduled for Paris is postponed by Prime Minister Guizot until the following year. Daniel O’Connell takes leave from the House of Commons and remarks in his farewell address: ‘I am afraid that the English people are not sufficiently impressed with the horrors of the situation in Ireland ... It has been estimated ... that one-fourth of the whole population must perish unless something is done.’ — Europe experiences its worst economic depression, as a bad harvest coincides with a slump in business after a very active period of construction, especially in the railroad industry.
1848 In Italy a separatist revolt of the Sicilians against the domination of the king of Naples provides the spark which ignites a general insurrection. The kings of Naples and Tuscanny hastily agree to liberal consti tutions in an effort to ward off revolution and save the monarchy. A counter-revolution is undertaken by the Austrians under Radetzki in the summer and defeats the popular forces of Northern Italy. The king of Naples suspends the constitution and reverts to earlier methods of rule. The republicans, led by Mazzini in
1845 1846
The economic distress of the cotton weavers in the Silesian Riesengebirge in Germany is aggravated by the competition of foreign products as well as by the mechanisation of the German weaving industry. Out of misery and frustration the weavers damage local cotton mills and destroy equipment. The revolt is ruthlessly crushed by Prussian military intervention. In Rochdale, England, two dozen Chartists and Owenite workers open a co-operative store called the ‘Equitable Pioneers’. They operate on the principle of selling goods at current market prices and distributing the returns among members according to their pur chases.A bad harvest and potato blight in Ireland create massive famine. There is violent opposition to the Corn Laws which prohibit importation of food to the starving population. Between the years 1841 and 1847 Ireland’s population is reduced by half by famine and emigration. After a decade of widespread agitation the Corn Laws are finally repealed. Nobles and intellectuals in Galician Poland revolt against the domination of the feudal lords. By simultaneously inciting a peasant revolt against the landowners, the Habsburgs of Austria are able to exploit the general turmoil and assert their hegemony.
__ Prussia’s king Friedrich Wilhelm IV calls a united provincial Diet (Landtag) at Berlin, the first repre sentative body to assemble in Germany for the purpose of advising the king. In France political reform banquets are held in Lille, Strasbourg and Rouen. The banquet scheduled for Paris is postponed by Prime Minister Guizot until the following year. Daniel O’Connell takes leave from the House of Commons and remarks in his farewell address: ‘I am afraid that the English people are not sufficiently impressed with the horrors of the situation in Ireland ... It has been estimated ... that one-fourth of the whole population must perish unless something is done.’ — Europe experiences its worst economic depression, as a bad harvest coincides with a slump in business after a very active period of construction, especially in the railroad industry. THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-1849
1844-1849 EUROPE 1844 The economic distress of the cotton weavers in the Silesian Riesengebirge in Germany is aggravated by the competition of foreign products as well as by the mechanisation of the German weaving industry. Out of misery and frustration the weavers damage local cotton mills and destroy equipment. The revolt is ruthlessly crushed by Prussian military intervention. In Rochdale, England, two dozen Chartists and Owenite workers open a co-operative store called the ‘Equitable Pioneers’. They operate on the principle of selling goods at current market prices and distributing the returns among members according to their pur chases.
After a decade of widespread agitation the Corn Laws are finally repealed. 1846 Nobles and intellectuals in Galician Poland revolt against the domination of the feudal lords. By simultaneously inciting a peasant revolt against the landowners, the Habsburgs of Austria are able to exploit the general turmoil and assert their hegemony. 1846-47 A new wave of anti-Austrian sentiment is manifested in Italy as Prince Metternich attempts to occupy the Papal city of Ferrara. The Austrians are ultimately forced to withdraw. jgA law is passed fixing the 10-hour maximum working day for women and children in Great Britain. __ Prussia's king Friedrich Wilhelm IV calls a united provincial Diet (Landtag) at Berlin, the first repre sentative body to assemble in Germany for the purpose of advising the king. In France political reform banquets are held in Lille, Strasbourg and Rouen. The banquet scheduled for Paris is postponed by Prime Minister Guizot until the following year. Daniel O’Connell takes leave from the House of Commons and remarks in his farewell address: ‘I am afraid that the English people are not sufficiently impressed with the horrors of the situation in Ireland ... It has been estimated ... that one-fourth of the whole population must perish unless something is done.’ — Europe experiences its worst economi c depression, asa had harvest coincides with a slump in business after a very active period of construction, especially in the railroad industry. THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-1849 1848 In Italy a separatist revolt of the Sicilians against the domination of the king of Naples provides the spark which ignites a general insurrection. The kings of Naples and Tuscanny hastily agree to liberal consti tutions in an effort to ward off revolution and save the monarchy. A counter-revolution is undertaken by the Austrians under Radetzki in the summer and defeats the popular forces of Northern Italy. The king of Naples suspends the constitution and reverts to earlier methods of rule. The republicans, led by Mazzini in EUROPE 1844 The economic distress of the cotton weavers in the Silesian Riesengebirge in Germany is aggravated by the competition of foreign products as well as by the mechanisation of the German weaving industry. Out of misery and frustration the weavers damage local cotton mills and destroy equipment. The revolt is ruthlessly crushed by Prussian military intervention. In Rochdale, England, two dozen Chartists and Owenite workers open a co-operative store called the ‘Equitable Pioneers’. They operate on the principle of selling goods at current market prices and distributing the returns among members according to their pur chases. 1845 A bad harvest and potato blight in Ireland create massive famine. There is violent opposition to the Corn Laws which prohibit importation of food to the starving population. Between the years 1841 and 1847 Ireland’s population is reduced by half by famine and emigration. 1846 After a decade of widespread agitation the Corn Laws are finally repealed. 1846 Nobles and intellectuals in Galician Poland revolt against the domination of the feudal lords. By simultaneously inciting a peasant revolt against the landowners, the Habsburgs of Austria are able to exploit the general turmoil and assert their hegemony.
^47 A law is passed fixing the 10-hour maximum working day for women and children in Great Britain. __ Prussia’s king Friedrich Wilhelm IV calls a united provincial Diet (Landtag) at Berlin, the first repre sentative body to assemble in Germany for the purpose of advising the king. In France political reform banquets are held in Lille, Strasbourg and Rouen. The banquet scheduled for Paris is postponed by Prime Minister Guizot until the following year. Daniel O’Connell takes leave from the House of Commons and remarks in his farewell address: ‘I am afraid that the English people are not sufficiently impressed with the horrors of the situation in Ireland ... It has been estimated ... that one-fourth of the whole population must perish unless something is done.’ — Europe experiences its worst economic depression, as a bad harvest coincides with a slump in business after a very active period of construction, especially in the railroad industry. THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-1849 1848 In Italy a separatist revolt of the Sicilians against the domination of the king of Naples provides the spark which ignites a general insurrection. The kings of Naples and Tuscanny hastily agree to liberal consti tutions in an effort to ward off revolution and save the monarchy. A counter-revolution is undertaken by the Austrians under Radetzki in the summer and defeats the popular forces of Northern Italy. The king of Naples suspends the constitution and reverts to earlier methods of rule. The republicans, led by Mazzini in Rome, Daniele Manin in Venice and Giuseppe Gari baldi, continue to fight for a united Italian nation. 1848 In France after the liberals’ reform banquet is banned once again the people of Paris take to the streets to demonstrate against repressive misrule. Barricades are thrown up and the Hotel de Ville captured. Louis- Philippe abdicates and liberal members of parliament establish a new provisional government. They proclaim measures of social and political reform: national work shops, abolition of press restrictions and the extension of suffrage rights to all male citizens over 21 years of age. The conservative royalists and moderate repub licans nevertheless triumph at the polls. The radicals and socialists, led by Louis Blanc, Armand Barbes, Auguste Blanqui, stage an unsuccessful coup d’etat which is quickly quelled and plays into the hands of the conservatives, who now pass a series of repressive measures. The decision to dose the national workshops predpitates a popular uprising, referred to as the ‘June Days’, but it too is put down by the national military forces. New censorship laws are passed and the right of assembly is suspended. Napoleon’s nephew Louis Napoleon is elected president, a sign that full-scale military dictatorship is in the offing. — In Germany general revolution is avoided through Friedrich Wilhelm’s clever tactic of ceding to liberal pressure for a German Reich which would replace the loose confederation of states (the Bund). He permits a central representative assembly to be convoked at Frankfurt-am-Main in May; but, since it bypasses existing governments and is composed of non-official representatives this organisation lacks executive force. What is more, the members are divided on the question of leadership: should the future German Reich be constituted so as to include Catholic Austria (the Gro/3deutsch plan) or should the boundaries be more narrowly drawn, giving hegemony to Protestant Prussia (the Kleindeutsch plan)? The Frankfurt par liament is caught in a stalemate. At Vienna, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, news of the uprisings in Paris encourage demonstrators to take The Revolutions of 1848-1849 35 to the streets and demand the resignation of Prince Metternich. Both he and Emperor Ferdinand give in to liberal pressure and the Diet is convoked to discuss the question of a new constitution. The ‘March Laws’ are passed, realising the demands for a separate Hungarian parliament and ministerial responsibility as put forth by their leader Louis Kossuth. However, the trilateral rivalries between the chief racial groups—Germans, Slavs and Magyars—within the Empire prohibit a harmonious functioning of the democratic apparatus; each group wishing for national unity at the expense of the others. Moreover, the internal conflicts between the various Slav groups—Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croatians, Poles and Ruthenians—add to the dissension and hostility. Civil war erupts in Hungary but is forcibly repressed by the greater strength of the Aus trian army under the Czech general Windischgratz. A second mass uprising occurs in Vienna in October, but this movement for separate Austrian and Hungarian nations is also crushed by Windischgratz and his troops. Two representatives of the Frankfurt assembly sent to Vienna with messages of sympathy are arrested and one, Robert Blum, is executed in November. The Italian republicans manage to take Rome, where they proclaim the republic and call a national con stituent assembly. However, a four-nation attack on Rome, led by Austria, defeats this last stronghold of republicanism in August. Her strength now reconfirmed by military successes, Austria decides to withdraw from the Frankfurt par liament and declares herself in favour of reviving the old Bund which had previously operated to Austria's advantage by maintaining the particularism of the numerous German Lander. The parliament offers the crown of the German Reich to Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia who refuses, certain that there will be no popular revolution to fear. When Prussia’s represen tatives walk out of parliament as well, the project of a united Germany is killed. Kossuth continues the struggle for Magyar national unity in Hungary. In April the Hungarian parliament declares the country's independence, Kossuth enters Budapest and proclaims himself dictator. As in Italy, the insurgents are defeated with the aid of a foreign monarch, this time Czar Nicolaus of Russia, who sends an army to aid the Habsburgs. The Austrians under the leadership of Windischgratz and Joseph Jellachich, a second Czech general, invade the country and re establish the old order. Kossuth flees the country. Yüklə 0,64 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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