The giant ehap review outline
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- Naturalists
- Manet
- Post Impressionism
- Radicalism
- Blanquists
- Georges Sorel
- Pope Leo XIII
- General Georges Boulanger
- Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg
- William Gladstone
The Belle Époque*Popular Culture* - The thirty years before 1914 have now become known as the Belle Époque. In this era, many Europeans came to share an urban life with plenty of opportunities for entertainment. - As new attractions such as music halls became available to more and more people, traditional games and festivals gradually became less important. In sports, many traditional games faded away as cricket, soccer and rugby became more popular. Sports games became important parts of mass culture. - People had more time for leisure due to the adoption of the English week (Sundays and half of Saturdays off), and women also gained more opportunities to attend the theater, etc. - Since people had more time to read, newspapers increased in circulation, now giving more space to sensationalistic human-interest stories and less attention to dry analysis of the news. - There were also more popular novels, and in wealthy nations, over 50% of the pop. could read/write. But mass schooling was still limited to a few years in basic subjects, and few poor could afford more. *Women’s Movements* - From the 1860s onwards, women had begun to organize in behalf of their interests. Several types of women’s movements existed, including:
- Now, most women in industrial countries were engaged in work for pay, although jobs were still tied to gender. Women were paid less and were mainly forced to do dull tasks or service work. - Over time, some new jobs spread to women – such as the jobs of secretaries, office clerks, bookkeepers, and saleswomen in department stores. - The triumph of women in science, etc. was causing some change in the attitudes towards women, although women still faced opposition from many people who felt their place was in the home. By 1910, some progress had been made and most nations had passed laws protecting women workers and increasing women’s rights: they could control property, make decisions, and participate in civic life. *The Arts* - In this time, there was a new variety of artistic styles. - Naturalists à this school believed that the artist had to show life exactly as it was w/careful detail and research. This applied especially to the novel – Emile Zola was the master of the school. - A common theme for this time was determinism, the belief that behavior was predetermined through social circumstance and blood inheritance (influence of Darwin). - Impressionism à during this time the big new style was impressionism. Instead of attempting to capture reality, impressionists showed “what the eye first sees” by using color, light, and flattening the canvas. The big guys were Manet (the Manet Revolution, he was really the first impressionist), Monet (yeah, the one who did the paintings of the same pond 100 times), Renoir (focused on people scenes) and Degas (also focused on people in their private moments). The impressionists were into art for arts sake and made no political points in their work (unlike romantics). - Post Impressionism à took the next step and was even less realistic, didn’t even try to show reality at all. The big people included Van Gogh (Starry Night, etc.), Paul Gaugin (beginning of surrealism), and the Pointillists (one dot at a time, led by Seurat). - Abstract Impressionism à really an early 20th century movement, it was just pretty things, w/no correlation to reality – “rhythmical arrangement of line and color” (Henry Matisse). *Attacks on Liberal Civilization* - It seems that now, finally, liberalism has won out, but it was still being attacked from many directions during this era, especially during the fin de siecle (1870 – 1914). - Radicalismà there were several different types of working class/radical movements, most of which were socialist, during this time. The different ones included:
- Conservatism à rightist movements revived during this time, gaining support among the aristocrats, rural people, and member of the lower-middle class. They defended voting by class, limited suffrage, and attacked the shallowness of middle class culture and capitalism. Sometimes the right used nationalism and patriotism to gain support. - The Church à the Christian religion greatly attacked the materialism and selfishness of modern society. Both Protestants and Catholics often denounced the injustices of society, but the Catholic Church was especially hostile towards liberalism. In 1864, Pope Pius IX issued a declaration that described the evils of modern society (it denounced total faith in reason, state control, and stated that the pope would not reconcile himself with liberalism) and in 1869 the Vatican Council declared that the pope was infallible when speaking ex cathedra. The battle between church and state was still going on during this era, but, as time passed, the conflict became outmoded and both sides became more cooperative as states turned their attention to the left instead. The church also encouraged charity work – for example, in 1891 Pope Leo XIII spoke out against social injustice and pushed for change. - Philosophy à some philosophers of the time began to look beyond reason. They stated that humanity was essentially irrational. For example, Henri Bergson believed that human understanding arose from intuition, not reason, and felt that spontaneity and creativity was key. Friedrich Nietzsche attacked everything about his society: equality, democracy, nationalism, militarism, etc. and felt that society’s only hope lay in being led by a few ubermench (supermen). - Charles Darwin à Darwin’s discoveries, which made people appear to be more like animals and showed that humans were irrational creatures controlled by nature, also undermined faith in liberalism, a philosophy that was based on a belief in human rationality. *Common Domestic Problems* - So, although liberalism was under attack in a big way, it still survived, but not without its share of issues and domestic problems, which were dealt w/differently in each country. - One issue was suffrage – although the trend had become to increase suffrage, there was a big debate over women’s suffrage. Also, each system had found its own way to constrain democracy. - Another was the exact role of the state in areas such as social welfare (education, housing, public health) and the economy. Special interest groups often lobbied for gov’t support, and conflicts often arose when the gov’t was faced w/competing interests – does this sound familiar? Hmm… - So, as governments gained responsibilities in social welfare, transportation, etc. their bureaucracies (surprise, surprise) grew in size. Businesses also became more bureaucratic, as did workers unions, political parties, and professional associations. Though the large-scale organizations also had a stabilizing influence, they made all the conflicts and social divisions larger scale too. - Another issue was national identity: should certain groups be included in a nation’s identity? This often led to major problems in which nations were split apart. *France’s Domestic Policies* - During Franco-Prussian war, in the four-month Siege of Paris, a split broke out between the right (which wanted to quit) and the left (wanted to fight like in 1792). The left won out, and established a radical Paris Commune, which took over the city in 1871. They held out as out as long as they could (they ate their dogs and cats), but the Germans still won. - So, France’s newly elected assembly went to meet at Versailles and agreed to peace on German terms. Since the assembly couldn’t agree on a form of government (I sense a pattern here), it compromised by making Adolphe Thiers chief of the “Executive Power”. - Now, the Paris Commune people thought they were the people running the country – and (you guessed it) a civil war breaks out. It is the republic national government (led by Thiers) vs. the Paris Commune (led by Charles de la Cruz – a Robespierre wannabe who is also known as the Incorruptible and also wants the Republic of Virtue – what a copycat). - The Germans are happy to sit back and watch the French kill e/o – haha, they say. - May 1871 à the “bloody week”. 25,000 people were killed in street fighting. Finally, the insurrection was put down and the French Third Republic was born (1871 – 1940). Although the people who wanted the republic were a minority, since the others are so divided, they won! - The Paris Commune became this big Marxist legend of the Socialist Revolution. - The new Third Republic had a Chamber of Deputies (elected by direct universal male suffrage) a Senate (elected by indirect suffrage through local officials) and a president (which was weak). It was a regime of compromise. From 1879 to 1899, it was lead by moderate republicans. - There were still plenty of problems: in 1889 General Georges Boulanger actually became more popular than the politicians using nat’lism, and the leaders fear a coup, but nothing happened. And in 1894, the whole Dreyfus Affair occurred (bad for military, monarchists, and Church). - Still, things pulled together, and from 1900 to WWI the gov’t was in the hands of firm republicans who purged the army of their opponents, attacked the church (separated church and state in 1905) but still stayed pretty much moderate. The prime minter from 1906 to 1909 was Georges Clemenceau. *Germany’s Domestic Policies* - Until 1890, Bismarck totally dominated German politics. But then young William II, eager to run the country and exasperated w/Bismarck’s complex policies, forced his resignation. - Bismarck’s policies had allowed the court, army, bureaucracy and the big businesses to accumulate tremendous amounts of power. His successors were faced w/the challenge of holding the system together w/the demands of the public and parliament. No easy job. They tried to mimic his foreign policy successes (big mistake) and copied him in building up the army. There were big issues over enlarging the army in 1887, 1893, 1898 and 1911 – 1913: each time the army got bigger, the government relied more on nationalism, and society got more divided. - The government also attempted to appeal to the public by propaganda in the 1890s. The Prussian Junkers and industrialists ran these campaigns that supported high tariffs, imperialism and the military and attacked socialists, Jews and foreigners. They won victories, such as the Naval Bill of 1898. - The government also extended many social welfare programs: social security, labor arbitration, regulation of working hours, safety standards, etc. and built railroads and stuff. - Still, the Social Democrats (socialist party) gained a lot throughout the 1890s and dominated Germany’s labor unions. The SD’s remained firm revolutionaries (no revisionism for them) choosing strict Marxism. The lines for battle, so to speak, were clearly drawn in German politics. - In 1909, the last peacetime chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, took office. He tried to placate both the conservative court and the more radical parliament. His programs for reform failed. *Italy’s Domestic Policies* - Italy’s liberal monarchy wanted to modernize while balancing the budget. But, since the gov’t was totally corrupt and had very limited suffrage, it couldn’t win much popular support. - In the 1880s and 1890s, the prime minister Francesco Crispi tried to win popular supported by policies like anticlericalism, a trade war w/France and imperialism – but, instead, he angered people and had to resort to martial law to end a protest movement among Sicilian peasants. - Unrest increased until riots reached revolutionary scale in Milan in 1898. The gov’t restored order, but it took bloodshed and repression. Conservatives argued for more oppression, but the Chamber of Deputies refused. Under Giovanni Giolitti (prime minister from 1903 to 1914) the gov’t got more popular support through acknowledging the right to strike, nationalizing railroads and life insurance, sponsoring public health and supporting universal male suffrage. - Although there were still conflicts, Italy was industrializing at a rapid rate, the war against Turkey in 1912 helped gain public support, and Italy was pretty much set on a liberal track. *Russia’s Domestic Policies* - Russia had blocked reform for a generation, and it had become a totally backwards country. When Alexander III came into power, he tried to achieve stability through the Orthodox Church and police control of ideology. He game nobles a greater role n local councils (the zemstvos) and gave governors permission to use martial law to restrict non-Russian religions and languages and persecute Jews. - Then, when Russia suffered a humiliating defeat at Japanese hands in the Russo-Japanese war in 1904, the pressure for reform grew tremendously. The Social Revolutionaries and the Marxist Social Democrats were both gaining strength, and the liberal members of the zemstvos decided to hold an illegal meeting in which they argued for civil liberties. - In 1905 striking workers marched on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to petition for a constitution and labor unions. They were shot down by the army on “Bloody Sunday” – which led to agitation so wide that in March the tsar promised to call an assembly of notables and announced reforms of religious toleration, reduced restrictions on non-Russians and Jews, and fewer payments for peasants. - This was not enough. Urban strikes, peasant riots, etc. showed the country demanded a constitution, and in August the tsar said he would consult the Imperial Duma. - The public wanted even more, and responded w/a wave of strikes so effective it forced the tsar to issue the October Manifesto, which granted a constitution. - The people who supported the constitution became known as Octoberists, more liberal leaders became known as the Cadets (short for Constitutional Democrats), and, further to the left, some socialists refused to compromise and called for another general strike, which was only partially successful and whose leaders were soon arrested. - The Fundamental Laws announced in May 1906 defined the new gov’t: the tsar could still veto, name his ministers, command the executive, the judiciary, and the army, and the nat’l legislature would have an upper house (half of whose members were appointed by the tsar) and the Duma. - Since elections under this system brought the Cadets into power, Nicholas disbanded the legislature and held new elections, which turned out more radical. So, he passed a law favoring the upper classes. - Although the new system was somewhat corrupt, it was still workable and allowed Russia to industrialize. The prime minister from 1906 – 1911, Peter Stolypin, reformed education and administration and created full private ownership of land and social insurance. *Austria-Hungary’s Domestic Policies* - In Austria-Hungary, politics had reached a stalemate, as the creation of the autonomous regime in Hungary had touched off conflicts w/the rest of the empire. Only the conservative instincts of the court, aristocracy, and the bureaucracy stopped reform, and stopped the country from disintegrating through the ABC Paradox (nationalist rebellions). - From 1879 – 1893 Count Eduard von Taffe held office. Although Czechs and Poles supported Taffe, he was forced to stick to inaction for fear of alienating his other supporters. In response to worker’s agitation, Taffe proposed welfare measures but repressed the socialists (making the left and the right mad). After his fall, the gov’t relied more on support from the top, since universal male suffrage (introduced in 1907) put the Christian Socialist and Social Democrats in the lead. - In Hungary, the Magyars kept control through oppression and corruption of the bureaucracy. They weakened the empire w/their independent policies. But, for mutual survival, the leaders of both Austria and Hungary stayed away from change and relied on imperial foreign policy to distract. *Spain’s Domestic Policies* - From 1854 – 1863, a liberal coalition held power in Spain, and Spain experienced economic growth and the beginning of industrialization. But this growth soon brought new demands, and in 1868, the unpopular Queen Isabella II fled and revolution ensued. - The revolution was led by political moderates who agreed on a constitution monarchy w/universal male suffrage, trial by jury and freedom of religion and the press. But, they couldn’t find a king, and finally had to settle for an Italian prince who gave up after three years. The republic only lasted two more years until Isabella’s son was reinstalled as Alfonso XII. Little change occurred during his reign, and a parliamentary system based on limited suffrage did little to reform the country. - Industrialization made everything worse, and, in Cuba, the gov’t was soon faced w/guerilla war and was forced to withdraw. This led to more thought, but not enough, for in 1909 the tensions resulted in a week of violence in Barcelona. This was put down, and the moderate regime came back. *England’s Domestic Policies* - In England, the domestic issues were resolved through a two-party system. William Gladstone transformed the Whigs into the Liberal Party, and Benjamin Disraeli turned the Tories into the Conservative Party. Gladstone supported increased suffrage and reform, and even sympathized with radicals. Disraeli supported a simper suffrage reform bill, which was passed in 1867. - The larger electorate provided for in 1867 allowed the Liberals to dominate for six years. The Liberals reformed education, the army, disestablished the Anglican Church of Ireland and restricted the abuses of absentee landlords. When the Conservatives returned in 1874, they expanded the authority of the state and added social welfare bills. The Liberals then continued their support of universal male suffrage, which was passed in 1885. - But, when Gladstone agreed to Irish home rule in 1886, his party split and some Liberals (led by Joseph Chamberlain) allied w/the Conservatives, who took over using imperialism. - While the Conservatives promoted British power abroad, they restructured local government by making country councils elective and therefore more democratic (1888, 1894) and extended the reforms of the civil service (in 1902 they got a national education system w/secondary schools). - But the working class was still dissatisfied, and, in 1900, union representative and intellectuals combined to for the Labour party, which was basically a democratic socialist party. The Liberal and the Labour parties campaigned for social programs that the Conservatives were against. - In 1906, the Liberals won again, and they established programs of workers’ compensation, old-age pensions and urban planning. This (and the arms race) led David Lloyd George to propose the “people’s budget” in 1909, which was rejected by the House of Lords. But the king, who threatened to appointed more peers, forced the upper house to consent to the budget and a change in the constitution, which prohibited the Lords from vetoing money bills or anything that passed three times. - The conflict led to an increase in social tension: there were more strikes and violence, and there was a possibility of the dreaded general strike. And, when in 1914 the Commons gave the Irish home rule, the Protestants of N. Ireland threatened civil war. - But, the outbreak of WWI generated a wave of national unity, though the peace and prosperity of the Edwardian era (1901 – 1910) was sacrificed in exchange.
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