spiritual change occurred for women, a finding de Castella and Simmonds
(2013) confirmed in their interviews with women trauma survivors. On the
other hand, Tedeschi and Calhoun did not find positive spiritual change for
men survivors or for survivors overall. The two qualities these latter authors
used to assess the Spiritual Change factor should be noted, however. The first
quality, ‘‘I have a stronger religious faith’’ (p. 460), clearly has to do with
religion. The second quality, ‘‘a better understanding of spiritual matters’’
(p. 460), requires an explanation of the difference between spiritual and
religious matters. Without such an explanation, respondents are liable to
interpret the question as having to do with assimilating religious teachings. The
Spiritual Change factor then becomes a measure of religious, not spiritual,
change. Counselors working with persons undergoing a nadir experience need
to be wary of confusing the two concepts as Tedeschi and Calhoun apparently
did. Spiritual intervention can be a powerful therapeutic tool, but as I discuss
in a later section, religious observance and spiritual experience are quite
distinct. In that section, I also suggest a more effective way of measuring
spiritual change.
Meaning-Making
Although the CiOQ (Joseph et al., 1993) did not include a question on whether
respondents had found new meaning in life, it did include under Negative
Change an item ‘‘my life has no meaning anymore’’ (p. 275). Of all the
questions in the CiOQ, it is the only one with which no respondents from the
Jupiter disaster agreed, and its overall Likert score was the lowest. Clearly,
then, respondents did find meaning in life after the disaster. The later PTGI
assessment (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996) included the items ‘‘I established a new
path for my life’’ and ‘‘my priorities about what is important in life’’ (p. 460),
both of which relate to meaning-making. Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996) noted
that the PTGI assessment had excellent internal consistency (a 5 .90).
Dropping items one at a time, they found that Chronbach’s alpha never
dropped below .89, ‘‘indicating that all items contribute relatively equally to
the consistency of the scale’’ (p. 461). Questions relating to meaning were
therefore an important part of their posttraumatic growth measure.
The ‘‘changes that come from efforts to recover’’ questionnaire of Burt and
Katz (1987) included a question on meaning, although the authors did not
provide information on the number of respondents answering this item
positively. Another assessment to include the item ‘‘my life has meaning’’ was
the Psychological Well-Being Post-Traumatic Changes Questionnaire (PWB-
PTCQ) (Joseph et al., 2012, p. 421). To test its reliability and validity, the
authors obtained Internet responses from 254 adults in an Internet survey
linked to Websites dealing with trauma. They also obtained data from two
control samples of 299 adults in workplace, church, and community groups in
the United Kingdom, and found the instrument to have high internal validity
(a . .87). Eighteen test items were chosen, and factor loadings for a one factor
solution varied from .44 to .61, with the item ‘‘my life has meaning’’ having a
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factor loading of .47. The item related to meaning, then, is an important part of
the well-being measure. Its inclusion in the PWB-PCTQ is an acknowledgment
that meaning-making is an important part of posttraumatic growth. As Kumar
(2005) pointed out with respect to the nadir experience of grief, the grief
journey can be a journey into the meaning of life.
Spiritual Growth
Spiritual meaning-making can also be an important outcome of a nadir event,
as the experience of John of the Cross illustrates. In 1578, he was imprisoned
and kept in solitary confinement except for times when he was taken out and
publicly whipped (Merton, 1952). Out of his captivity came the famous poem
Dark Night of the Soul, and a prose manuscript of the same name (John of the
Cross, 1585/1959) in which he wrote at length about how his experiences
ultimately helped him. Out of hardship, he wrote that his soul had learned to
commune with God, and that God had helped him to a clearer understanding
of the truth. Clearly, John of the Cross experienced a deepening of his Catholic
faith, but was this deepening an example of spiritual growth?
When a person undergoes such growth, it may sometimes seem as if he or she is
coming out of a spiritual sleep. Assagioli (1975) wrote about the spiritual
awakening that follows a spiritual crisis, noting that it brings a sense of
meaning, purpose, inner security, and an appreciation for the sacredness of life.
It may also bring a greater sense of closeness to a higher power. Such spiritual
growth can occur with alcoholism. Although the Alcoholics Anonymous
program does not address alcoholism as a nadir experience, it does have a
spiritual focus, and the end result of surrendering to powerlessness is not
sobriety, but spiritual awakening (Alcoholics Anonymous, 2002). Given the
importance of spiritual growth in the nadir experience, it is disappointing that
authors such as Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996) and Joseph et al. (2012) did not
include an item on their questionnaires relating to spiritual (as opposed to
religious) change.
Denney, Aten, & Leavell (2011) found evidence of posttraumatic spiritual
growth, however, in 13 cancer survivors in a study using focus groups. Eleven
reported increased acceptance of their circumstances and greater ability to
surrender control to God. Nine reported experiencing richer prayer lives, eight
felt an increase in divine peace, and eight reported an increased sense of divine
purpose. Given the discrepancies between reported spiritual change for men
and women reported by Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996), it is unfortunate that
only three of the 13 group members were men, and that the authors did not
compare the enhanced spirituality of male and female survivors.
What is the best way to measure spirituality (rather than religion) in such
studies? From the standpoint of spirituality and posttraumatic growth, the
most important categories of religious scales (Hill & Pargament, 2008) are
those measuring closeness to God (Hall & Edwards, 1996; Kass, Friedman,
Lesserman, Zuttermeister, & Benson, 1991; Maton, 1989; Pargament et al.,
Nadir Experience
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