The wonder that was india

THE ROYAL COURT AND HOUSEHOLD

As was the case with the state laws, the Umayyad and 'Abbasid caliphs; the Turkic sultans, and Mughal padshahs also derived their

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court ceremonials from pre-Islamic Iranian traditions. Sijda (prostration), known as zaminbos (kissing the ground), before the sultan had become popular even prior to the establishment of the Delhi sultanate in India. During his reign Balban made the sijda rules even more elaborate and pompous, while in Islam Shah's reign prostration was made before the vacant throne.37

In Akbar's reign, however, his private attendants were not allowed to prostrate themselves in the hall of public audience. This was permitted only in the hall of private audience. In the hall of public audience only the kurnish and taslim were performed. Kurmish involved placing the right hand upon the forehead and bending the head downwards. Taslim was performed by placing the back of the right hand on the floor and then raising it gently till the person stood erect. In both cases the forehead did not touch the ground, and the religious sentiments of the orthodox were not hurt. The 'uiama' and sufis were invariably exempted from sijda, although many of them performed it privately before the sultans and padshahs.38

Some sultans were extravagant and licentious. The more serious ones held regular public audiences where they listened to the reports from the heads of department and noted the implementation of state regulations. Ambassadors from foreign countries were also received in public audience, and the tributary chiefs and important dignitaries were accorded a formal welcome there. The princes, ministers, heads of department, and other major officials were assigned fixed places to stand. The master of ceremonies at the sultan's court was known as amir-i hajib or barbak, and his asssistants were called hajibs or na'ib bdrbak. They stood between the sultan and his subjects. Their duty was to prevent the violation of precedence in standing in the court and to present the petitioners to the sultan. They were members of the military class and acted as commanders of military expeditions when ordered to do so. The leading hdjibs played an active role in the war councils. The naqibu'l-nuqaba' (chief usher) and his assistants, called naqibs, announced loudly the sultan's orders to the soldiers. They also proclaimed the sultan's presence in the royal cavalcade. The insignia of the naqibu'l-nuqaba', consisting of a gold mace and a gold tiara surmounted by peacock feathers, added pomp and lustre to the courts. A body of soldiers called sildhdar, commanded by the sar-sildhdar, also waited on the sultan during the public audiences. The sultan's bodyguards, called jdndars, were loyal soldiers and wore very impressive uniforms. Their commander was known as the sar-jdndar.

Akbar was more accessible to his subjects than were previous

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rulers. After performing his morning devotions he showed himself from a window on the first floor of the palace. A large crowd of all classes of people assembled outside the palace wall and could submit their petitions to the Emperor. Some were satisfied with having merely a glimpse of him. The practice was known as jharokha-darskan.3g Some Hindus neither drank nor ate until they had seen the Emperor. Known as darshanyas, to them the Emperor was not merely a charismatic personality, but an incarnate god. Magnificent elephants and spirited horses were also inspected during the jharokha-darshan ceremony. Aurangzib abolished this institution during the eleventh year of his reign because he considered that it amounted to the worship of a human being.

Under the Mughals formal state business was transacted in the diwan khana-i 'amm wa khass (hall of public audience), also known simply as the diwdn-i 'dmm. The Mughal emperors from Akbar to Aurangzib spent some five to six hours daily in the diwan-i 'dmm. There the ministers laid their departmental reports before the emperor, and expert gladiators, wrestlers, and musicians exhibited their skills. The appointments and promotions of mansabdars and other senior officers were also announced there. Commanders and governors appeared before the emperor in the diwdn-i 'dmm before proceeding to their assignments. Ambassadors and victorious governors were received, and defeated rebels and other prisoners were presented there.

Father Monserrate gives an interesting picture of the conduct of state business in the diwan-i 'amm and in the diwdn khdna-i khdss (hall of private audience). In the latter Akbar listened to the suggestions of his ministers on state matters and gave his own verdict. It was also the scene of his intellectual activity, such as listening to the reading of books and discussions. Because of its proximity to the emperor's private bath, it was also known as the ghusl-khdna (bathroom). Contemporary works give a very interesting glimpse of the secret state business transacted in the ghusl-khdna. Important ambassadors and foreign dignitaries were invited there. During Shahjahan's reign, however, consultations with princes and leading nobles were held in a more secret chamber called the Shah Burj.

Under the sultans the royal household was controlled by an officer of very high rank, the wakil-i dar. He supervised the payment of salaries and allowances to the sultan's personal staff. The Mughals, by contrast, did not attach much importance to their household officers, and they held only minor positions.

The karkhanas (manufactories) were an important part of the royal household. Their controllers bought supplies for the royal household, which were then stored in these kdrkhdnas. Objects for

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royal use were also manufactured there. For example, in Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign four thousand silk weavers manufactured material for the robes of honour which the sultans lavishly distributed, while five hundred craftsmen were engaged in gold embroidery.

Sultan Firuz divided his karkkhanas into thirty-six sections. Their supreme controller was a leading noble; his subordinates, who supervised each karkhana separately, were also noblemen.41 The karkhanas under the Mughals were also known as buyutdt. Besides storing and manufacturing articles for the emperor's household and the court's needs, the mint, public treasury, department for construction of monuments, roads, and repairs, and artillery were also included in the buyutdt. Kdrkhdnas were even maintained in districts far from the capital in order to manufacture articles for which local craftsmen, especially weavers, were readily available. The growing luxury of the emperor's court and the need to send gifts to foreign courts engendered a competitive spirit in these kdrkhdnas; continued efforts were made to step up production and raise the standards of manufacture. Under Akbar the diwan-i buyutdt controlled the finances and working of the buyutdt. From Jahangir's reign the mir-i saman was made slightly senior to the diwdn-i buyutat, although both were jointly responsible for the efficient working of the system. The mir-i sdmdn controlled the organization of the imperial tours and the establishment which accompanied the emperor.

Each karkhana was supervised by a ddrogha (superintendent), while its cash and materials were in the charge of a tahwildar (cash keeper), and its accounts were regularly audited by the mustawfi (auditor). The mushrif-i kul-ojuz was the accountant for all sections of the buyutdt.42

MINISTERS AND THEIR DEPARTMENTS

In the Qur'an, Aaron is referred to as the vizier (wazir) of his brother Moses, so the office was not of Iranian origin as is generally believed. The vizier combined some of the functions of a prime minister with some of those of the head of the civil administration. The later jurists such as al-Mawardi (974—1058) divided viziers into two categories: one had unlimited and the other limited power. The viziers of unlimited power emerged only during the decline of the 'Abbasids and under weak sultans.

The text Addbu'l-harb wa'sh Shujd'a, dedicated to Sultan Iltut-

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mish, says that just as the body could not survive without a soul, a government could not flourish without a vizier.43 Even those prophets who were both apostles and kings and were guided by divine revelation did not rule the country without a vizier. Under the sultanate his department was called the diwan-i wizarat and dealt mainly with income and expenditure. The vizier was assisted by the mushrif-i mamalik and the mustawft-i mamalik. The officers in the mushrif department supervised the collection of revenue and audited the local accounts. The mustawfi-i mamdlik controlled state expenditure. Both the mushrif-i mamdlik and the mustawfi-i mamdlik had direct access to the sultan. Sultan 'Ala'u'd-Din Khalji's centralization of power into his own hands made the office of vizier insignificant, and although Sultan Muhammad respected his vizier, Khwaja-i Jahan, he made major decisions independently. On the other hand, Sultan Flruz never interfered with the administration of his vizier, Maqbul Khan-i Jahan.

The office of na'ibu'l mulk (regent) was created under Iltutmish's successors in order to reduce the importance of viziers. The sultans were mere puppets in their hands. Towards the end of 'Ala'u'd-Dln's reign Malik Kafur, the na'ibu'l mulk, became virtual ruler, as was Khusraw Baradu, although still legally subordinate to Mubarak Khalji.

Bayram Khan's position in Akbar's administration was historically of exceptional importance. Initially Akbar's tutor, he was. created wakil-i saltanat (prime minister) and during Akbar's minority he was to all intents and purposes the Emperor. After Bayram's dismissal, Akbar reduced the power of the wakll and frequently left the position vacant for long periods. Jahangir did not fill the position between the fifth and twentieth years of his reign. From his appointment by Jahangir in 1626 until his own death in 1641 Asaf Khan Abu'l-Hasan remained wakll mainly because he was instrumental in raising Shahjahan to the throne and was his father-in-law. He was the last of the wakils of the Great Mughals. After his accession Shahjahan gave him the title Yaminu'd-Dawla (Empire's Right-Hand Man) and a very large mansab. He regularly attended Shahjahan's evening durbar to place all important affairs before the Emperor. He kept the seal and received a copy of the reports from the provinces and of every paper filed by the diwan-i kull. All warrants of appointment were sealed and signed by Asaf Khan, and the court reporter gave him daily intelligence reports.44

Bahadur Shah I appointed Asad Khan as his wakll but refused to give him the power enjoyed by Asaf Khan, reminding him that the latter's powers emanated from family relationships. Asad Khan, in

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fact, remained only the governor of Delhi. In short, the Mughals did not consider the wakil indispensable to the state.45

Under the Delhi sultans, the state departments — four in number - were deemed the four pillars of the state. Of these the diwdn-i wizarat was concerned with finance, the diwdn-i risalat with religious matters, the diwdn-i 'arz organized military affairs, and the diwdn-i insha' dealt with the royal correspondence. Although the diwdn-i wizdrat was senior to the other three, their ministers had direct access to the sultans and enjoyed equal respect. Akbar made them interdependent and sought the counsel of a galaxy of dignitaries and nobles who remained in attendance at the court.

During the sultanate period the word diwan meant a government department and was used mainly for the wazir's department, but in Akbar's reign the term was identified with the wazir himself, only to be separated again in Jahangir's reign when the word wazir was again used to describe the individual. In Shahjahan's reign the wazir was called diwan-i kull (principal diwdn) to distinguish him from the subordinate and provincial diwans. According to Abu'l-Fazl the diwdn was the emperor's lieutenant in financial matters, the superintendent of the imperial treasury, and the auditor of the accounts. The diwdn suggested rules and regulations for the assessment and collection of revenue, allocated funds for expenditure on state activities, and supervised the work of the departmental officers. He was also responsible for stepping up agricultural production and for improving the cultivators' conditions. During his long reign Akbar had several very talented finance ministers, but posterity has ascribed, all his innovations to Raja Todar Mal, who worked as diwdn from the twenty-second to the twenty-fourth and from the twenty-seventh to the thirty-fourth years of the Emperor's reign. Jahangir's diwdn I 'timadu'd-Dawla owed his high position to his competence and not to the marriage of his daughter Nur-Jahan to the Emperor. Shahjahan's original diwan-i kull, Afzal Khan, was a very learned man and the Emperor's favourite. Islam Khan also successfully worked as Shahjahan's diwdn-i kull from the thirteenth to the nineteenth year of his reign but, realizing that the Emperor wished to make Sa'du'llah Khan the diwdn-i kull, he volunteered to become governor of the Deccan, and Sa'du'llah Khan replaced him. The Emperor was deeply impressed with the loyalty and efficiency of the latter and would not listen to any complaints against his diwdn-i kull, even from his favourite, Dara Shukoh. Sa'du'llah's death in the thirtieth year of his reign was deeply mourned by the Emperor and deemed an irreparable loss to the empire.46

The assistant diwdns were generally Hindus. Each of the following

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four branches of the diwan-i kull controlled a separate department. They were the diwdn-i khdlsa (for khalsa I and), diwdn-i tan (for salaries), mushrif (chief accountant), and mustawfi (auditor). Raghunath Rai, the diwdn-i khdlsa from the twenty-third tp the thirtieth year of Shahjahan's reign, was assigned the duties of the diwdn-i tan from the twenty-sixth to the thirtieth year of that time. He also served Aurangzlb until his own death in June 1663.

On a more senior level the ministry was responsible for the military administration, which under the Delhi sultanate was called the diwdn-i 'arz.. Its head was referred to as the 'ariz-i mamalik. He directed the recruitment of soldiers and officers, maintained the muster rolls, controlled promotions and demotions, and revised salaries. The 'ariz also controlled the commissariat. 'Ala'u'd-Din Khalj! introduced the system of branding horses and maintaining a roll describing each trooper, but Firuz Tughluq discontinued these practices.

Under the early sultans the royal cavalry in Delhi were called hasham-i qalb or afwdj-i qalb. They were picked troopers comprising the jandars (royal bodyguards) and sultans' slaves. Hasham-i atrdf was the name given to the troops posted in the provincial headquarters and the garrisons. According to Thomas, 'the form of the saddle, the seat of the horseman, the chanfrein or head armour of the steed and his erect tail' as portrayed on Iltutmish's coins 'seem to point to the Turki ideals of a best in horsemen'. Barbosa's description of the Gujarati and Deccani troops in the fifteenth century is also very impressive. The army was organized on the basis of a decimal system. Although Bughra Khan's classification of military grades did not necessarily represent the true state of military command,47 al-'Umari, an important authority, says that a khan commanded ten thousand horsemen or more, a malik commanded a thousand, an amir a hundred, and a sipah saldr less than one hundred.48 Amir Khusraw also confirms this decimal gradation.

Although the Turks dominated the army of the early sultans, troopers of other races, including Hindus, were not ignored. The practice of employing Hindu troops had started as early as the reign of Qutbu'd-Din Aybak, and they served the sultans with loyalty and devotion.

According to the Addbu'l-harb, bows were the troopers' most prized weapons, followed by the sword. The short spear, the short lance, the mace, and the lasso were also used. The finest horses were found in the sultan's stables, as he exercised a monopoly over their purchase. Many horses were imported from Hazramawt and the Persian Gulf region, although the Panjab hills were also fine

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horse-breeding grounds. Horses were also bought from the Himalayas and north-eastern regions.

Elephants were effectively used from the days of Mahmud of Ghazni, who developed an impressive stable which contained 1,000 elephants, tended by a Hindu staff. The elephants were lined up in the front and centre of the armies. When out of control they played havoc with the ranks, but their advantages were believed to outweigh the disadvantages, and they were always present.

Before 'Ala'u'd-Din Khalji's reign the sultans assigned iqta's, the revenues from different territorial units, to their military commanders for their personal maintenace and that of their troops. These iqtd's were frequently transferred and were not identical with the fiefs of the European feudal age. The yield of each iqta' was roughly estimated, and the assignees were given more than was needed for their maintenance. The iqtd' holders or muqta's were expected to remit the surplus, orfawdzil to the sultan, but this was occasionally withheld by adventurers such as 'Ala'u'd-Din Khalji.

During Iltutmish's reign iqta's were also distributed to some two to three thousand Delhi troopers in the dodb and around Delhi. By Balban's reign most of the troopers had died, and the remainder were now invalids. Their iqtd's, however, with the connivance of the military department, had become incorporated into their family estates. Balban initially decided to resume all iqtd's belonging to those who could not render military service but desisted on the recommendation of his kotwal, Malik Fakhru'd-Din.

'Ala'u'd-Din Khalji abolished the system of assigning iqtd's to his standing army and paid them a cash salary. The valuation of the iqtd' he gave to the commanders in provinces was calculated exactly and was equivalent to the commander's salary plus the pay for his troopers. This was deemed a direct charge on the state treasury and not left to the commander's discretion.49 Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq was also strict in assigning iqtd's and in some cases rescinded the commander's power to collect revenue. Under Firuz the practice of assigning revenue to the standing army was restored, and the transfer of iqtd's became rare.50 To all intents and purposes the iqta' system as it was before the time of 'Ala'u'd-DIn continued to be followed until the sixteenth century. The Afghans divided the empire into large areas, assigned to the tribal leaders.

The infantry was mainly composed of Hindus and slaves called payak. They were efficient archers (dhdnuk). Barbosa found the bows of the Deccan foot-soldiers as long as those in England. As bodyguards they were most trustworthy. Not only did they save the sultans' lives on many occasions but they also thwarted various rebel conspiracies.

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Under the Mughals the duties of the mir bakhshi were complex. He was responsible for presenting the candidates for mansabs (grant of ranks) to the emperor, although the princes, governors, and commanders of various military expeditions could also, on the basis of their knowledge, introduce prospective mansabdars to the emperor. The papers regarding the rank and salary of the mansabdars approved by the emperor were prepared mainly in the offices of the diwan-i tan and the bakhshis. The formalities were tedious. The mansabdars had to furnish surety, and according to Manucci even the princes 'had to conform to the customs'.51 Bankers and money-lenders were readily accepted as guarantors for the good behaviour and character of the candidates, although eminent mansabdars also acted as guarantors.

The mir bakhshi or his assistants inspected the soldiers, the horses, the beasts of burden, and other accoutrements which the mansabdars were required to maintain. The horses approved by the mir bakhshi were branded (dagh), and a roll describing the soldiers (tashiha) was compiled. Not only the appointment papers of the mansabdars but even those of other ministers passed through the mir bakhshi. The mir bakhshi asssigned to different mansabdars the duty of mounting guard on the royal palace. This practice enabled Shaykh Farid, the mir bakhshi during the last years of Akbar's reign, to foil the attempts by Khan-i A'zam, the wakil, and Raja Man Singh to raise Khusraw, in supersession of Prince Salim, to the throne.

News reports from the provinces were first received by the mir bakhshi and then presented to the emperor, either directly or through the wakil. The mir bakhshi accompanied the emperor on his tours, hunting expeditions, and pleasure trips. When the emperor personally commanded the army on the battle-front, the mir bakhshi accompanied him. He was also ordered to go on all important military campaigns led by the princes. Sometimes the mir bakhshis were given independent commands in battle, when they were assisted by two other bakhshis deployed at the centre of the army.

THE MANSABDARS AND THE ARMY

Mansab means literally a rank or a position. It also meant a function, prerogative, or duty. The mansabdars, or holders of mansabs, were required to perform either military or civil duties or both, but all of them were placed on the military payroll. This was the most significant feature of the system. According to the Akbar-nama, in 1573 Akbar introduced regulations concerning the

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branding of horses (dagh) and fixing the grades of the officers of the state (maratib), despite the nobles' stubborn resistance. Two years later, when Akbar returned from his Bihar expedition, the dagh regulations were completely implemented, and the officers' mansabs were fixed according to their merit and the contingents they maintained. A cash payment had been substituted for the assignment of territories (jdgir). According to the Ain-i Akbari, the ranks (mansabs) of mansabddrs ranged from the dahbdshi (commander of ten) to the dah hazari (commander of 10,000), but mansabs above 5,000 were reserved for the princes. Following the numerical value of the letters in the name Allah, sixty-six mansabs were established, although only thirty-three feature in the A in. It would seem that some mansabs were not assigned and that others were dropped to simplify the system.

Until 1595 each mansabddr had to keep in his pay the number of troopers indicated by his rank. He also maintained a fixed number of horses, elephants, camels, and carts. However, many mansabddrs were unable to fulfil their obligations. For example, the historian Mulla Bada'uni, who was a mansabddr of twenty, should have maintained twenty horsemen but could not afford to do so. Other mansabddrs were in the same position. Realizing the hardships suffered by many mansabddrs, in 1595 Akbar divided them into three categories: first, those who had troopers equal in number to their mansab; second, those who had half or more; third, those who had less than half. In the table of mansabddrs, the A in-i Akbari, compiled that same year, gives only single-number mansabs and mentions the number of horses of different categories, elephants, camels, and carts that that grade of mansabddr was required to maintain. It does not list the number of horsemen. The dual ranks of zdt and sawdr occur from early 1597, and the first important mansabddr mentioned with both was Mirza Shahrukh with 5,000 zdt and 2,000 sawdr. The number of horsemen which a mansabddr had to maintain was indicated in his sawdr rank, while the zdt rank indicated his personal pay in the pay schedules. Surviving pay schedules from Shahjahan's reign show that the salary against zdt and sawdr ranks was different. The salary paid to a mansabddr against the zdt rank included his personal pay and the cost of the horses, elephants, camels, and carts which were his responsiblity according to the schedule. By Aurangzib's time, the mansabdar's sawdr rank was generally higher than his zat rank. Consequently the pay against sawdr ranks, or the troops maintained by him, was generally more than double the zdt rank. The zat rank was not symbolic nor intended to decide precedence among the mansabddrs. Both the zat and sawdr ranks were meant to show particular obligations and salaries.52