55
(20)
*e
̮ me̮s (§17)
(
amas)
‘strange, unknown’
(21)
*jāmē- (§256) (
jápmit)
‘to die’
Proto-Sámi
*pe
̮ sē and its Finnic cognate (~ Fi.
pyhä) may have other Uralic cognates
(Saarikivi 2007: 327–331), but concepts of
‘sacred’ are so common (e.g. Anttonen 2013:
14) that the spread of this word cannot be
assumed to have communicated, rather than
translated, the concept as Proto-Sámi spread.
Proto-Sámi
*e
̮ me̮s has cognates in Finnic (~
Fi.
ihme [‘wonder, miracle’]) and Ante Aikio
(2015: 8–10) has recently identified cognates
in Khanty (Proto-Khanty
*jēm [‘religious or
social taboo’],
*jēmǝŋ [‘sacred’]).
36
Aikio
(2015: 9) also observes that the South and Ume
Sámi forms have clearly been borrowed from
more northerly Sámi languages. This word
may have been connected to religious concepts
or beliefs in Pre-Sámi, but it is not clear that
these were maintained in Proto-Sámi’s spread.
In later languages, the word appears simply as
a label for what is other or unknown.
Proto-Sámi
*jāmē- has
been argued to have
cognates in Finnic and Komi languages that
suggest it spread with Proto-Sámi, but the
meaning ‘death’ would be a euphemism
according to this etymology (Saarikivi 2007:
337; see also Koponen 2005: 154–155). It is
then unclear whether the word spread with
Proto-Sámi in the sense of ‘to die’ or if it
developed this meaning through contacts with
other languages and subsequently spread
through Proto-Sámi dialects.
Proto-Sámi vocabulary shared with other
Uralic languages exhibits words for categories
associated with beliefs, mythology and ritual
practices. These include fundamental categories
of empirical experience such as ‘sun’ and ‘to
die’ as well as socially constructed categories of
‘shaman’ and ‘sacred’. However, the spread of
this vocabulary is not accompanied by
evidence
that
Proto-Sámi
conceptions,
institutions and practices spread with them as
opposed to being used as practical and
potentially quite broad labels for local
understandings of phenomena and local
practices – i.e. pragmatic translations for inter-
group communication.
Vocabulary of Unknown Origin
The picture is completed by considering
Common Proto-Sámi terms of unknown
origin. These include one of the most
prominent and widely discussed words
connected with Sámi religions:
(22)
*siejtē
(§1140) (
sieidi)
‘sacrificial stone’
The term
*siejtē is perhaps the most noteworthy
among terms reviewed here because it refers to
sites of ritual activity that allowed access to the
unseen world. As such, it presents the possibility
that Proto-Sámi may have spread with
concepts about particular types of religiously
significant site in the landscape. The term is
not attested for South or Ume Sámi, i.e. in the
southwest and adjacent part of the central-west
religion region, but it is considered borrowed
into Finnish place names even in southern
Finland (Aikio 2007b: 172–173, 191–192).
Distinguishing a Finnish borrowing of
*siejtē
from one of Proto-Sámi
sijtë (§1130) (
siida)
[‘(Sámi) village’] is phonologically problematic,
but a local form of
*siejtē is likely behind
toponyms for rock formations (see Aikio
2007b:191; 2009: 147). If
*siejtē was current
in souther Finland, it was likely also in
Southwest Proto-Sámi but dropped out.
There is no consensus on this word’s
etymology.
37
The vowel combination *
ie–ē
indicates the word is a loan (Aikio 2012: 84). If
borrowed before Proto-Sámi’s spread,
*siejtē
could have been carried in conjunction with
practices for engaging with the unseen world
and associated conceptions.
38
If borrowed after
Proto-Sámi had spread, it could be an indicator
of practices and associated conceptions
spreading through the extended language
network. The practices and conceptions may
have been subject to waves of transformation
and reinterpretation, but they nevertheless seem
to have a direct correlation with practices.
Loans of uncertain etymology include a term
related to the material side of shamanic practice:
(23)
*pe
̮ lēmē (§856) (
ballin)
‘beater for a shaman’s drum’
Lehtiranta only lists cognates of
*pe
̮ lēmē in
Lule and Ter Sámi, while Pekka Sammallahti
(1989:
s.v. ‘ballin:m’) lists a North Sámi form.
The limited attestations of this may simply be
owing to limitations of the sources regarding
56
terminology for such a specific object. The
beaters for Sámi shaman drums generally
exhibit a common basic form (Manker 1938:
300–346), and they are found across regions
with markedly different types of drum
construction. Traditions of classic shamanism
are characterized by cross-cultural isoglosses
of individual features (e.g. Pavlinskaya 2001).
Consequently, there is no reason to assume that
this isogloss of drum beaters is linked to the
spread of the noun
*pe
̮ lēmē with or through
Proto-Sámi. Although
*pe
̮ lēmē appears linked
especially to uses of the drum in technologies
familiar to classic shamanism, it is not clear
that the term spread in conjunction with that
technology or particular practices.
One term of unknown origin groups with
supernatural beings of legends and tales:
(24)
*ācē
(§29)
(
áhci)
‘groin, crotch; female troll-monster’
Itkonen (1976: 25–44) contextualizes the
folklore associated with
*ācē as belonging to
the traditions of Northern Eurasian hunting
cultures. Although the term connects with belief
traditions, it could have spread through Proto-
Sámi dialects in connection with narration.
Two additional words might be mentioned
alongside
the Proto-Finnic loan of *tāvte
̮ :
(25)
*pākće
̮ s (§881) (
bávččas)
‘pain, ache’
(26)
*tālkke
̮ s (§1220) (
dálkkas)
‘medicine, drug’
The word
*pākće
̮ s was likely related to
understandings of the body while
*tālkke
̮ s was
potentially connected with some type or types
of healing practice. However, the significance
of these terms remains unknown.
The vocabulary of unknown etymology does
not exhibit clear semantic groupings. The term
*siejtē is of special interest because it connects
directly with ritual practices. Nevertheless, so
long as the etymologies remain unknown, it is
impossible to determine whether these words
were carried with the spread of Proto-Sámi or
passed through the language networks later.
Overview of Common Proto-Sámi Religious
Vocabulary
Most of the twenty-six terms surveyed fall into
distinct groups, which will be reviewed here
before discussing their general implications. It
is worth reiterating that ‘Common Proto-Sámi’
refers to vocabulary reconstructed for dialects
with documented languages and may not be
representative of dialects of Finland and
Karelia. The words
*e
̮ me̮s [‘strange’],
*pe̮lēmē
[‘drum-beater’] and *
siejtē [‘sacrificial stone’]
lack evidence in South and Ume Sámi, and
thus may have already been absent from
Southwest Proto-Sámi.
*Sāvje
̮ lacks a cognate
in Ume and its referent in South Sámi differs
considerably from cognates in other Sámi
languages, leaving its
history in the Southwest
dialect unclear.
Cosmology (2 words)
The Uralic or West Uralic term (18)
*peajvē
[‘day, sun’] spread with Proto-Sámi. Although
the sun seems to have been of religious and
ritual significance throughout Sámi language
areas, variation in the sun’s gender makes it
questionable whether the mythic identity of the
sun spread with language. The word
*mānō
[‘moon’] is a Proto-Scandinavian loan that
spread through Proto-Sámi language networks
after their geographic dispersal. It is not clear that
it spread with any beliefs or practices related to
the moon. Neither
*peajvē nor
*mānō seem to
support a correlation between the spread of
Proto-Sámi language and religious concepts or
practices connected with cosmology. The
example of
*mānō makes the negotiation of a
Common Proto-Sámi lexicon appear to have
potentially been largely independent of
religion.
Shamanism (5 words)
Three of the eight terms considered Uralic or
West Uralic in origin are linked to shamanism.
Only (14)
*noajtē [‘shaman’] can be considered
to have spread in this capacity. However, the
term’s use suggests that it was semantically
quite flexible and
inclusive rather like Modern
English
priest or
shaman. Associations of (15)
*koamtē [‘shaman drum; cover’] and (16)
*keavrē [‘hoop, ring, drum’] with shamanism
seem to have been secondary and are not
uniform across Sámi languages. West Uralic
(17)
*vuolē [‘song; to invoke, curse’] refers to
a performance practice, but it remains unclear
whether the connection to magic or ritual
developed during language spread; nor is it
clear that the word was associated with
‘shamanism’. The word (23)
*pe̮lēmē [‘drum-