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condition is fulfilled by money taking the form of hoards. These reserves serve as conduits for the
supply or withdrawal of money to or from the circulation, which in this way never overflows its
banks.
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B. Means of Payment
In the simple form of the circulation of commodities hitherto considered, we found a given value
always presented to us in a double shape, as a commodity at one pole, as money at the opposite
pole. The owners of commodities came therefore into contact as the respective representatives of
what were already equivalents. But with the development of circulation, conditions arise under
which the alienation of commodities becomes separated, by an interval of time, from the
realisation of their prices. It will be sufficient to indicate the most simple of these conditions. One
sort of article requires a longer, another a shorter time for its production. Again, the production of
different commodities depends on different seasons of the year. One sort of commodity may be
born on its own market place, another has to make a long journey to market. Commodity-owner
No. 1, may therefore be ready to sell, before No. 2 is ready to buy. When the same transactions
are continually repeated between the same persons, the conditions of sale are regulated in
accordance with the conditions of production. On the other hand, the use of a given commodity,
of a house, for instance, is sold (in common parlance, let) for a definite period. Here, it is only at
the end of the term that the buyer has actually received the use-value of the commodity. He
therefore buys it before he pays for it. The vendor sells an existing commodity, the purchaser
buys as the mere representative of money, or rather of future money. The vendor becomes a
creditor, the purchaser becomes a debtor. Since the metamorphosis of commodities, or the
development of their value-form, appears here under a new aspect, money also acquires a fresh
function; it becomes the means of payment.
The character of creditor, or of debtor, results here from the simple circulation. The change in the
form of that circulation stamps buyer and seller with this new die. At first, therefore, these new
parts are just as transient and alternating as those of seller and buyer, and are in turns played by
the same actors. But the opposition is not nearly so pleasant, and is far more capable of
crystallisation.
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The same characters can, however, be assumed independently of the circulation
of commodities. The class-struggles of the ancient world took the form chiefly of a contest
between debtors and creditors, which in Rome ended in the ruin of the plebeian debtors. They
were displaced by slaves. In the middle ages the contest ended with the ruin of the feudal debtors,
who lost their political power together with the economic basis on which it was established.
Nevertheless, the money relation of debtor and creditor that existed at these two periods reflected
only the deeper-lying antagonism between the general economic conditions of existence of the
classes in question.
Let us return to the circulation of commodities. The appearance of the two equivalents,
commodities and money, at the two poles of the process of sale, has ceased to be simultaneous.
The money functions now, first as a measure of value in the determination of the price of the
commodity sold; the price fixed by the contract measures the obligation of the debtor, or the sum
of money that he has to pay at a fixed date. Secondly, it serves as an ideal means of purchase.
Although existing only in the promise of the buyer to pay, it causes the commodity to change
hands. It is not before the day fixed for payment that the means of payment actually steps into
circulation, leaves the hand of the buyer for that of the seller. The circulating medium was
transformed into a hoard, because the process stopped short after the first phase, because the
converted shape of the commodity, viz., the money, was withdrawn from circulation. The means
of payment enters the circulation, but only after the commodity has left it. The money is no
longer the means that brings about the process. It only brings it to a close, by stepping in as the
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absolute form of existence of exchange-value, or as the universal commodity. The seller turned
his commodity into money, in order thereby to satisfy some want, the hoarder did the same in
order to keep his commodity in its money-shape, and the debtor in order to be able to pay; if he
do not pay, his goods will be sold by the sheriff. The value-form of commodities, money, is
therefore now the end and aim of a sale, and that owing to a social necessity springing out of the
process of circulation itself.
The buyer converts money back into commodities before he has turned commodities into money:
in other words, he achieves the second metamorphosis of commodities before the first. The
seller’s commodity circulates, and realises its price, but only in the shape of a legal claim upon
money. It is converted into a use-value before it has been converted into money. The completion
of its first metamorphosis follows only at a later period.
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The obligations falling due within a given period, represent the sum of the prices of the
commodities, the sale of which gave rise to those obligations. The quantity of gold necessary to
realise this sum, depends, in the first instance, on the rapidity of currency of the means of
payment. That quantity is conditioned by two circumstances: first the relations between debtors
and creditors form a sort of chain, in such a way that A, when he receives money from his debtor
B, straightway hands it over to C his creditor, and so on; the second circumstance is the length of
the intervals between the different due-days of the obligations. The continuous chain of
payments, or retarded first metamorphoses, is essentially different from that interlacing of the
series of metamorphoses which we considered on a former page. By the currency of the
circulating medium, the connexion between buyers and sellers, is not merely expressed. This
connexion is originated by, and exists in, the circulation alone. Contrariwise, the movement of the
means of payment expresses a social relation that was in existence long before.
The fact that a number of sales take place simultaneously, and side by side, limits the extent to
which coin can be replaced by the rapidity of currency. On the other hand, this fact is a new lever
in economising the means of payment. In proportion as payments are concentrated at one spot,
special institutions and methods are developed for their liquidation. Such in the middle ages were
the virements at Lyons. The debts due to A from B, to B from C, to C from A, and so on, have
only to be confronted with each other, in order to annul each other to a certain extent like positive
and negative quantities. There thus remains only a single balance to pay. The greater the amount
of the payments concentrated, the less is this balance relatively to that amount, and the less is the
mass of the means of payment in circulation.
The function of money as the means of payment implies a contradiction without a terminus
medius. In so far as the payments balance one another, money functions only ideally as money of
account, as a measure of value. In so far as actual payments have to be made, money does not
serve as a circulating medium, as a mere transient agent in the interchange of products, but as the
individual incarnation of social labour, as the independent form of existence of exchange-value,
as the universal commodity. This contradiction comes to a head in those phases of industrial and
commercial crises which are known as monetary crises.
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Such a crisis occurs only where the
ever-lengthening chain of payments, and an artificial system of settling them, has been fully
developed. Whenever there is a general and extensive disturbance of this mechanism, no matter
what its cause, money becomes suddenly and immediately transformed, from its merely ideal
shape of money of account, into hard cash. Profane commodities can no longer replace it. The
use-value of commodities becomes valueless, and their value vanishes in the presence of its own
independent form. On the eve of the crisis, the bourgeois, with the self-sufficiency that springs
from intoxicating prosperity, declares money to be a vain imagination. Commodities alone are
money. But now the cry is everywhere: money alone is a commodity! As the hart pants after fresh