Despite outward appearances, it was actually not until the latter decades of the 19th century that the surgeon truly emerged as a specialist within the whole of medicine to become a recognized and respected clinical practitioner

Standardized postgraduate surgical education and training programs could be established to help produce a cadre of scientifically knowledgeable practitioners. Moreover, in a final snub to an unscientific past, newly established basic surgical research laboratories offered the means of proving or disproving the latest theories while providing a testing ground for bold and exciting clinical breakthroughs.

• Standardized postgraduate surgical education and training programs could be established to help produce a cadre of scientifically knowledgeable practitioners. Moreover, in a final snub to an unscientific past, newly established basic surgical research laboratories offered the means of proving or disproving the latest theories while providing a testing ground for bold and exciting clinical breakthroughs.

Few individuals have had an influence on the history of surgery as overwhelmingly as that of the Brussels-born Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

• Few individuals have had an influence on the history of surgery as overwhelmingly as that of the Brussels-born Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

As professor of anatomy and surgery in Padua, Italy, Vesalius taught that human anatomy could be learned only through the study of structures revealed by human dissection. In particular, his great anatomic treatise De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (1543) provided fuller and more detailed descriptions of human anatomy than any of his illustrious predecessors did.

• As professor of anatomy and surgery in Padua, Italy, Vesalius taught that human anatomy could be learned only through the study of structures revealed by human dissection. In particular, his great anatomic treatise De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (1543) provided fuller and more detailed descriptions of human anatomy than any of his illustrious predecessors did.

Most importantly, Vesalius corrected errors in traditional anatomic teachings propagated 13 centuries earlier by Greek and Roman authorities, whose findings were based on animal rather than human dissection.

• Most importantly, Vesalius corrected errors in traditional anatomic teachings propagated 13 centuries earlier by Greek and Roman authorities, whose findings were based on animal rather than human dissection.

Even more radical was Vesalius' blunt assertion that anatomic dissection must be completed by physician/surgeons themselves—a direct renunciation of the long-standing doctrine that dissection was a grisly and loathsome task to be performed by a diener-like individual while from on high the perched physician/surgeon lectured by reading from an orthodox anatomic text.

• Even more radical was Vesalius' blunt assertion that anatomic dissection must be completed by physician/surgeons themselves—a direct renunciation of the long-standing doctrine that dissection was a grisly and loathsome task to be performed by a diener-like individual while from on high the perched physician/surgeon lectured by reading from an orthodox anatomic text.

This principle of hands-on education would remain Vesalius' most important and long-lasting contribution to the teaching of anatomy. Vesalius' Latin literae scriptae ensured its accessibility to the most well-known physicians and scientists of the day.

• This principle of hands-on education would remain Vesalius' most important and long-lasting contribution to the teaching of anatomy. Vesalius' Latin literae scriptae ensured its accessibility to the most well-known physicians and scientists of the day.

Latin was the language of the intelligentsia and the Fabrica became instantly popular, so it was only natural that over the next 2 centuries the work would go through numerous adaptations, editions, and revisions, though always remaining an authoritative anatomic text.

• Latin was the language of the intelligentsia and the Fabrica became instantly popular, so it was only natural that over the next 2 centuries the work would go through numerous adaptations, editions, and revisions, though always remaining an authoritative anatomic text.

The position of Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) in the evolution of surgery remains of supreme importance. He played the major role in reinvigorating and updating Renaissance surgery and represents severing of the final link between surgical thought and techniques of the ancients and the push toward more modern eras.

• The position of Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) in the evolution of surgery remains of supreme importance. He played the major role in reinvigorating and updating Renaissance surgery and represents severing of the final link between surgical thought and techniques of the ancients and the push toward more modern eras.

From 1536 until just before his death, Paré was either engaged as an army surgeon, during which he accompanied different French armies on their military expeditions, or performing surgery in civilian practice in Paris.

• From 1536 until just before his death, Paré was either engaged as an army surgeon, during which he accompanied different French armies on their military expeditions, or performing surgery in civilian practice in Paris.