Despite outward appearances, it was actually not until the latter decades of the 19th century that the surgeon truly emerged as a specialist within the whole of medicine to become a recognized and respected clinical practitioner

Friedrich Trendelenburg (1844-1924)

Johann von Mikulicz-Radecki (1850-1905)

French surgeons, including

• French surgeons, including

• Jules Peán (1830-1898)

• Just Lucas-Championière (1843-1913)

• Marin-Theodore Tuffiér (1857-1929)

the Italians, most notably

• the Italians, most notably

• Eduardo Bassini (1844-1924)

• Antonio Ceci (1852-1920)

several American surgeons

• several American surgeons

• William Williams Keen (1837-1932)

• Nicholas Senn (1844-1908)

• John Benjamin Murphy (1857-1916)

• scalpel wielders had essentially explored all cavities of the human body.

Nonetheless, surgeons retained a lingering sense of professional and social discomfort and continued to be pejoratively described by nouveau scientific physicians as nonthinkers who worked in little more than an inferior and crude manual craft.

• Nonetheless, surgeons retained a lingering sense of professional and social discomfort and continued to be pejoratively described by nouveau scientific physicians as nonthinkers who worked in little more than an inferior and crude manual craft.

Theodor Billroth (1829-1894)

• Theodor Billroth (1829-1894)

Theodor Kocher (1841-1917)

• Theodor Kocher (1841-1917)

It was becoming increasingly evident that research models, theoretical concepts, and valid clinical applications would be necessary to demonstrate the scientific basis of surgery to a wary public. The effort to devise new operative methods called for an even greater reliance on experimental surgery and absolute encouragement of it by all concerned parties.

• It was becoming increasingly evident that research models, theoretical concepts, and valid clinical applications would be necessary to demonstrate the scientific basis of surgery to a wary public. The effort to devise new operative methods called for an even greater reliance on experimental surgery and absolute encouragement of it by all concerned parties.

Most importantly, a scientific basis for therapeutic surgical recommendations—consisting of empirical data, collected and analyzed according to nationally and internationally accepted rules and set apart from individual authoritative assumptions—would have to be developed. In contrast to previously unexplainable doctrines, scientific research would triumph as the final arbiter between valid and invalid surgical therapies.

• Most importantly, a scientific basis for therapeutic surgical recommendations—consisting of empirical data, collected and analyzed according to nationally and internationally accepted rules and set apart from individual authoritative assumptions—would have to be developed. In contrast to previously unexplainable doctrines, scientific research would triumph as the final arbiter between valid and invalid surgical therapies.

In turn, surgeons had no choice but to allay society's fear of the surgical unknown by presenting surgery as an accepted part of a newly established medical armamentarium. This would not be an easy task.

• In turn, surgeons had no choice but to allay society's fear of the surgical unknown by presenting surgery as an accepted part of a newly established medical armamentarium. This would not be an easy task.

The immediate consequences of surgical operations, such as discomfort and associated complications, were often of more concern to patients than was the positive knowledge that an operation could eliminate potentially devastating disease processes.

• The immediate consequences of surgical operations, such as discomfort and associated complications, were often of more concern to patients than was the positive knowledge that an operation could eliminate potentially devastating disease processes.

Accordingly, the most consequential achievement by surgeons during the early 20th century was ensuring the social acceptability of surgery as a legitimate scientific endeavor and the surgical operation as a therapeutic necessity.

• Accordingly, the most consequential achievement by surgeons during the early 20th century was ensuring the social acceptability of surgery as a legitimate scientific endeavor and the surgical operation as a therapeutic necessity.

William Stewart Halsted (1852-1922), more than any other surgeon, set the scientific tone for this most important period in surgical history. He moved surgery from the melodramatics of the 19th century operating theater to the starkness and sterility of the modern operating room, commingled with the privacy and soberness of the research laboratory.

• William Stewart Halsted (1852-1922), more than any other surgeon, set the scientific tone for this most important period in surgical history. He moved surgery from the melodramatics of the 19th century operating theater to the starkness and sterility of the modern operating room, commingled with the privacy and soberness of the research laboratory.