Despite outward appearances, it was actually not until the latter decades of the 19th century that the surgeon truly emerged as a specialist within the whole of medicine to become a recognized and respected clinical practitioner

The heroic and dangerous nature of surgery seemed appealing in less scientifically sophisticated times, but now, surgeons were courted for personal attributes beyond their unmitigated technical boldness.

• The heroic and dangerous nature of surgery seemed appealing in less scientifically sophisticated times, but now, surgeons were courted for personal attributes beyond their unmitigated technical boldness.

A trend toward hospital-based surgery was increasingly evident, owing in equal parts to new, technically demanding operations and to modern hospital physical structures within which surgeons could work more effectively.

• A trend toward hospital-based surgery was increasingly evident, owing in equal parts to new, technically demanding operations and to modern hospital physical structures within which surgeons could work more effectively.

The increasing complexity and effectiveness of aseptic surgery, the diagnostic necessity of the x-ray and clinical laboratory, the convenience of 24-hour nursing, and the availability of capable surgical residents living within a hospital were making the hospital operating room the most plausible and convenient place for a surgical operation to be performed.

• The increasing complexity and effectiveness of aseptic surgery, the diagnostic necessity of the x-ray and clinical laboratory, the convenience of 24-hour nursing, and the availability of capable surgical residents living within a hospital were making the hospital operating room the most plausible and convenient place for a surgical operation to be performed.

It was obvious to both hospital superintendents and the whole of medicine that acute care institutions were becoming a necessity more for the surgeon than for the physician. As a consequence, increasing numbers of hospitals went to great lengths to supply their surgical staffs with the finest facilities in which to complete operations.

• It was obvious to both hospital superintendents and the whole of medicine that acute care institutions were becoming a necessity more for the surgeon than for the physician. As a consequence, increasing numbers of hospitals went to great lengths to supply their surgical staffs with the finest facilities in which to complete operations.

For centuries, surgical operations had been performed under the illumination of sunlight or candles, or both. Now, however, electric lights installed in operating rooms offered a far more reliable and unwavering source of illumination.

• For centuries, surgical operations had been performed under the illumination of sunlight or candles, or both. Now, however, electric lights installed in operating rooms offered a far more reliable and unwavering source of illumination.

Surgery became a more proficient craft because surgical operations could be completed on stormy summer mornings, as well as on wet winter afternoons.

• Surgery became a more proficient craft because surgical operations could be completed on stormy summer mornings, as well as on wet winter afternoons.

Despite the global economic depression in the aftermath of World War I, the 1920s and 1930s signaled the ascent of American surgery to its current position of international leadership. Highlighted by educational reforms in its medical schools, Halsted's redefinition of surgical residency programs, and the growth of surgical specialties, the stage was set for the blossoming of scientific surgery.

• Despite the global economic depression in the aftermath of World War I, the 1920s and 1930s signaled the ascent of American surgery to its current position of international leadership. Highlighted by educational reforms in its medical schools, Halsted's redefinition of surgical residency programs, and the growth of surgical specialties, the stage was set for the blossoming of scientific surgery.

Basic surgical research became an established reality as George Crile (1864-1943), Alfred Blalock (1899-1964) , Dallas Phemister (1882-1951), and Charles Huggins (1901-1997) became world-renowned surgeon-scientists.

• Basic surgical research became an established reality as George Crile (1864-1943), Alfred Blalock (1899-1964) , Dallas Phemister (1882-1951), and Charles Huggins (1901-1997) became world-renowned surgeon-scientists.

Alfred Blalock (1899-1964)

• Alfred Blalock (1899-1964)

Surgical techniques would, of course, become more sophisticated with the passage of time, but by the conclusion of World War II, essentially all organs and areas of the body had been fully explored. In fact, within a short half-century the domain of surgery had become so well established that the profession's foundation of basic operative procedures was already completed. As a consequence, there were few technical surgical mysteries left.

• Surgical techniques would, of course, become more sophisticated with the passage of time, but by the conclusion of World War II, essentially all organs and areas of the body had been fully explored. In fact, within a short half-century the domain of surgery had become so well established that the profession's foundation of basic operative procedures was already completed. As a consequence, there were few technical surgical mysteries left.