Despite outward appearances, it was actually not until the latter decades of the 19th century that the surgeon truly emerged as a specialist within the whole of medicine to become a recognized and respected clinical practitioner

Any lingering doubts about the validity and significance of the momentous concepts that Lister had put forth were eliminated on the battlefields of World War I. There, the importance of just plain antisepsis became an invaluable lesson for scalpel bearers, whereas the exigencies of the battlefield helped bring about the final maturation and equitable standing of surgery and surgeons within the worldwide medical community

• Any lingering doubts about the validity and significance of the momentous concepts that Lister had put forth were eliminated on the battlefields of World War I. There, the importance of just plain antisepsis became an invaluable lesson for scalpel bearers, whereas the exigencies of the battlefield helped bring about the final maturation and equitable standing of surgery and surgeons within the worldwide medical community

Especially prominent among other late 19th century discoveries that had an enormous impact on the evolution of surgery was research conducted by Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923), which led to his 1895 elucidation of x-rays.

• Especially prominent among other late 19th century discoveries that had an enormous impact on the evolution of surgery was research conducted by Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923), which led to his 1895 elucidation of x-rays.

Having grown interested in the phosphorescence from metallic salts that were exposed to light, Roentgen made a chance observation when passing a current through a vacuum tube and noticed a greenish glow coming from a screen on a shelf 9 feet away. This strange effect continued after the current was turned off.

• Having grown interested in the phosphorescence from metallic salts that were exposed to light, Roentgen made a chance observation when passing a current through a vacuum tube and noticed a greenish glow coming from a screen on a shelf 9 feet away. This strange effect continued after the current was turned off.

He found that the screen had been painted with a phosphorescent substance. Proceeding with full experimental vigor, Roentgen soon realized that there were invisible rays capable of passing through solid objects made of wood, metal, and other materials.

• He found that the screen had been painted with a phosphorescent substance. Proceeding with full experimental vigor, Roentgen soon realized that there were invisible rays capable of passing through solid objects made of wood, metal, and other materials.

Most significant, these rays also penetrated the soft parts of the body in such a manner that the more dense bones of his hand were able to be revealed on a specially treated photographic plate. In a short time, numerous applications were developed as surgeons rapidly applied the new discovery to the diagnosis and location of fractures and dislocations and the removal of foreign bodies.

• Most significant, these rays also penetrated the soft parts of the body in such a manner that the more dense bones of his hand were able to be revealed on a specially treated photographic plate. In a short time, numerous applications were developed as surgeons rapidly applied the new discovery to the diagnosis and location of fractures and dislocations and the removal of foreign bodies.

By the late 1890s, the interactions of political, scientific, socioeconomic, and technical factors set the stage for what would become a spectacular showcasing of surgery's newfound prestige and accomplishments. Surgeons were finally wearing antiseptic-looking white coats.

• By the late 1890s, the interactions of political, scientific, socioeconomic, and technical factors set the stage for what would become a spectacular showcasing of surgery's newfound prestige and accomplishments. Surgeons were finally wearing antiseptic-looking white coats.

Patients and tables were draped in white, and basins for bathing instruments in bichloride solution abounded. Suddenly all was clean and tidy, with conduct of the surgical operation no longer a haphazard affair. This reformation would be successful not because surgeons had fundamentally changed but because medicine and its relationship to scientific inquiry had been irrevocably altered.

• Patients and tables were draped in white, and basins for bathing instruments in bichloride solution abounded. Suddenly all was clean and tidy, with conduct of the surgical operation no longer a haphazard affair. This reformation would be successful not because surgeons had fundamentally changed but because medicine and its relationship to scientific inquiry had been irrevocably altered.

With all four fundamental clinical prerequisites in place by the turn of the century and highlighted with the emerging clinical triumphs of various

• With all four fundamental clinical prerequisites in place by the turn of the century and highlighted with the emerging clinical triumphs of various

• English surgeons, including

• Robert Tait (1845-1899)

• William Macewen (1848-1924)

• Frederick Treves (1853-1923)

German-speaking surgeons, among whom were

• German-speaking surgeons, among whom were

• Theodor Billroth (1829-1894)

• Theodor Kocher (1841-1917)

•