Despite outward appearances, it was actually not until the latter decades of the 19th century that the surgeon truly emerged as a specialist within the whole of medicine to become a recognized and respected clinical practitioner

Although other surgeons made similar observations about the difficulties and nonsensical aspects of using boiling oil as a means of cauterizing fresh gunshot wounds, Paré's use of a less irritating emollient of egg yolk, rose oil, and turpentine brought him lasting fame and glory.

• Although other surgeons made similar observations about the difficulties and nonsensical aspects of using boiling oil as a means of cauterizing fresh gunshot wounds, Paré's use of a less irritating emollient of egg yolk, rose oil, and turpentine brought him lasting fame and glory.

His ability to articulate such a finding in multiple textbooks, all written in the vernacular, allowed his writings to reach more than just the educated elite. Among Paré's important corollary observations was that when performing an amputation, it was more efficacious to ligate individual blood vessels than to attempt to control hemorrhage by means of mass ligation of tissue or with hot oleum.

• His ability to articulate such a finding in multiple textbooks, all written in the vernacular, allowed his writings to reach more than just the educated elite. Among Paré's important corollary observations was that when performing an amputation, it was more efficacious to ligate individual blood vessels than to attempt to control hemorrhage by means of mass ligation of tissue or with hot oleum.

Described in his Dix Livres de la Chirurgie avec le Magasin des Instruments Necessaires à Icelle (1564), the free or cut end of a blood vessel was doubly ligated and the ligature was allowed to remain undisturbed in situ until, as a result of local suppuration, it was cast off.

• Described in his Dix Livres de la Chirurgie avec le Magasin des Instruments Necessaires à Icelle (1564), the free or cut end of a blood vessel was doubly ligated and the ligature was allowed to remain undisturbed in situ until, as a result of local suppuration, it was cast off.

• Paré humbly attributed his success with patients to God, as noted in his famous motto, “Je le pansay. Dieu le guérit,” that is, “I treated him. God cured him.”

Although it would be another 3 centuries before the third desideratum, that of anesthesia, was discovered, much of the scientific understanding concerning efforts to relieve discomfort secondary to surgical operations was based on the 18th century work of England's premier surgical scientist, John Hunter (1728-1793)

• Although it would be another 3 centuries before the third desideratum, that of anesthesia, was discovered, much of the scientific understanding concerning efforts to relieve discomfort secondary to surgical operations was based on the 18th century work of England's premier surgical scientist, John Hunter (1728-1793)

John Hunter (1728-1793)

• John Hunter (1728-1793)

Considered one of the most influential surgeons of all time, his endeavors stand out because of the prolificacy of his written word and the quality of his research, especially in using experimental animal surgery as a way to understand the pathophysiologic basis of surgical diseases.

• Considered one of the most influential surgeons of all time, his endeavors stand out because of the prolificacy of his written word and the quality of his research, especially in using experimental animal surgery as a way to understand the pathophysiologic basis of surgical diseases.

Most impressively, Hunter relied little on the theories of past authorities but rather on personal observations, with his fundamental pathologic studies first described in the renowned textbook

• Most impressively, Hunter relied little on the theories of past authorities but rather on personal observations, with his fundamental pathologic studies first described in the renowned textbook

• A Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gun-Shot Wounds (1794)

Ultimately, his voluminous research and clinical work resulted in a collection of more than 13,000 specimens, which became one of his most important legacies to the world of surgery. It represented a unique warehousing of separate organ systems, with comparisons of these systems, from the simplest animal or plant to humans, demonstrating the interaction of structure and function.

• Ultimately, his voluminous research and clinical work resulted in a collection of more than 13,000 specimens, which became one of his most important legacies to the world of surgery. It represented a unique warehousing of separate organ systems, with comparisons of these systems, from the simplest animal or plant to humans, demonstrating the interaction of structure and function.

For decades, Hunter's collection, housed in England's Royal College of Surgeons, remained the outstanding museum of comparative anatomy and pathology in the world. That was until a World War II Nazi bombing attack of London created a conflagration that destroyed most of Hunter's assemblage.

• For decades, Hunter's collection, housed in England's Royal College of Surgeons, remained the outstanding museum of comparative anatomy and pathology in the world. That was until a World War II Nazi bombing attack of London created a conflagration that destroyed most of Hunter's assemblage.