Developing cooperative learning in efl contents. Introduction

1.2. Elements and types of cooperative learning
Cooperative learning (CL) has been described as one of the most widely
investigated educational approaches ⁶. Hundreds of studies have cited its benefits, and Johnson and Johnson⁷, Slavin and Sharan have produced extensive reviews of these:
According to Johnson and Johnson 'Surprisingly, although cooperative learning is believed to be the most effective among three primary styles of teaching and learning (individualistic, competitive, and cooperative), it remains the least used in classroom settings' .
Applied to the classroom, Cohen⁸ defined cooperative learning as:
'Students working together in a group small enough that everyone can participate on a collective task that has been clearly assigned. Moreover, students are expected to carry out their task without direct and immediate supervision of the teacher.'
This definition sets out three key components:

1. 
   The size of the group: small enough to be conducive to everyone participating in a joint task.
   
2. 
   The task should be carefully structured and jointly undertaken by members of the group.
   

3. The group should be able to work independently of the teacher.
A definition by Veenman, Kenter and Post,states:
'CL refers to any of a variety of teaching methods in which pupils are placed in small groups to help one another learn academic content. '
This indicates that cooperative learning is a broad concept with a range of methods; the key factor being that pupils are placed in small groups and help one another with academic tasks.
Johnson and Johnson⁹ state simply that 'cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals'. The key aspects concern joint working with a shared purpose.It is also important to clarify the distinction between cooperation and collaboration; terms which are often used interchangeably, but which have different meanings. Collaborative learning includes the notion of pupils working together on a shared project. However, what distinguishes cooperative learning is the element of interdependence that exists in the group. Indeed, there seems to be common agreement from the major instigators of, and researchers into, cooperative learning (e.g. Johnson and Johnson, Slavin, Kagan, Cohen, and Sharan) that for learning to be cooperative it must include certain elements. The crucial aspects that are needed for CL according to Johnson and Johnson (2000, 2005), Slavin (1995), Kagan (1994), Cohen (1994a), Sharan & Sharan (1992, 1994)) are:
• interdependence (often termed 'positive interdependence'). This is where group members perceive that they are linked with each other and one cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds. Another aspect of positive independence is individual accountability, where each member of the group must be accountable for his or her share of the work.
• 'promotive interaction' which provides the conditions for CL to thrive, and occurs when individuals encourage each other to achieve group goals. This in turn incorporates group and individual reflection where groups monitor and assess their functioning underpinned by the necessary social and small group skills. These skills need explicit teaching; for example, the skills of encouragement, management communication and conflict control.
From the foregoing, the definition of cooperative learning underpinning this research will therefore be: pupils working together in small groups on a joint task which ensures interdependence and promotive interaction, underpinned by the pre-requisite small group and social skills.
A range of different approaches to CL have emerged. These vary in essence from those that present strategies that are applicable across the curriculum and age ranges, to those that are embedded within a defined curriculum. Nevertheless, certain essential ingredients are common to all. Johnson et al (1994) set out two basic elements which include positive interdependence, derived from the social interdependence theory, and which has expanded to include individual and group accountability. The other key element: promotive interaction provides the conditions for CL to thrive. It occurs when individuals encourage each other to accomplish the group's goals, which in turn require the appropriate use of social skills and the ability to reflect on, and improve them. As these elements form the bedrock of CL, it is necessary to review them in greater depth: