Developing cooperative learning in efl contents. Introduction

Learning Together (Johnson and Johnson, 1975) This method when it was first developed did not set out specific detail for implementation. It was typically described as a method in which:
'students worked as a group to complete a single group product, shared ideas and helped each other with answers to questions, made sure all members were involved and understood group answers, and asked for help from each other before asking the teacher, and the teacher praised and rewarded the group on the basis of the group performances'¹³
Developing on this, Johnson and Johnson set out 18 specific steps for implementation for teachers:

1. 
   Teaching objectives should be specified.
   
2. 
   Groups need to be limited to no more than six (later recommendations were of four).
   
3. 
   Groups should be heterogeneous in terms of ability, sex and ethnicity.
   
4. 
   Groups should be arranged in circles to help communication.
   
5. 
   Materials should promote interdependence, such as only one copy of materials per group, to facilitate sharing.
   
6. 
   Roles should be assigned to pupils in groups to ensure interdependence.
   
7. 
   The task must be clearly structured and explained.
   
8. 
   Positive goal interdependence should be structured, i.e. by the group producing a single product.
   
9. 
   Individual accountability should be ensured so that all members of the group contribute.
   
10. 
    Inter-group cooperation should be provided.
    
11. 
    The criteria for success should be explained.
    
12. 
    The desired behaviours should be stated from a clear hierarchy of skills.
    
13. 
    Pupils' behaviour should be monitored continually.
    
14. 
    Task assistance should be provided.
    
15. 
    Intervention to teach collaborative skills should be provided where necessary.
    
16. 
    Closure to a lesson should be provided with summaries by pupils and the teacher.
    
17. 
    The pupils' work should be evaluated.
    

18. Group functioning should be assessed by ongoing observation and discussion of group process.
In Learning Together, Johnson and Johnson also set out three key types of cooperative learning groups. Firstly, formal cooperative learning groups which last from one lesson to several weeks in which groups are established and roles assigned within groups. Secondly, informal cooperative learning groups which are ad hoc groups that can last from a few minutes to a whole lesson and typically consist of turn to your partner type activities. Thirdly, cooperative base groups which are long term (usually lasting for an academic year) heterogeneous groups with stable membership where relationships are clearly established.
This approach also sets out a developmental approach for teachers, from initial use to 'mechanical use', using particular guidance; to finally 'routine use' where 'teachers automatically structure cooperative learning situations without conscious thought or planning' . This process, Johnson and Johnson state, may take up to two years.