Electrical industry of burma/myanmar

Appendix 6
USE OF YADANA GAS FOR POWER GENERATION AND INDUSTRY: CHRONOLOGY

Unocal Corporation, 22/04/96. www.secinfo.com/drdbh.91Bu.htm

The Yadana project is expected to supply -- through a domestic pipeline -- a proposed 200-MW power plant and a 1,750-metric-ton/day fertilizer manufacturing facility near Yangon.
Myanmar U.N. Mission, Geneva, official website, [undated, circa mid-1998]. http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/t&b/gas-oil.html

The Yadana natural gas field will produce 650 million cu ft/day of natural gas of which 525 million cu ft will be sold to Thailand with effect from July 1998. Of the remaining 125 million cu ft of natural gas that will be utilized within Myanmar, 105 million cu ft will be sent to the Kyaikto area in Mon State through a 20-inch-diameter pipeline to be used [as feedstock] for a 340-MW electric power plant [and a urea fertilizer factory] that will produce 57,000 tons annually. This 3-in-1 natural gas utilization project will be jointly implemented by Total, UNOCAL and Mitsui companies.

Pennwell Petroleum Group, January 2001. http://www.pennwellpetroleumgroup.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=ARTCL&ARTICLE_ID=187095

According to Unocal Corp, Myanmar told a three-company international consortium known as the Myanmar Fertilizer Power Development Co (MFPD) to proceed with a long-delayed project to build a $200 million gas pipeline from the Yadana gas field in the Gulf of Martaban, to an onshore location near the capital city of Rangoon. The MFPD partners are Unocal, TotalFinaElf SA, and Mitsui & Co of Japan. The 20-inch, 241-km gas pipeline was part of the $750 million ‘Three-in-One’ project proposed in the mid-1990s under the overall development of Yadana gas. Aside from the gas line, the project included a 300-MW gas-fired power station and a 1,750-tonne/day fertilizer production facility near Kyaikto, south-east of Rangoon. The Yadana-Kyaikto gas pipeline was planned to come on-stream in early 1998, delivering up to 105 million cf/d of gas from the Yadana offshore production complex to the proposed power and fertilizer plants. The gas required for the project was part of the 125 million cf/d allotted under the 30-year domestic sale agreement that the Yadana consortium signed with Myanmar in 1995.

World Bank, Myanmar: An Economic and Social Assessment (Draft version), p 100, 18/08/99. [not available on-line]

One project that could be urgently undertaken is the construction of a pipeline from the offshore Yadana gas field to [a point] near Yangon. This pipeline could deliver the 125-million cf/d of gas obligated for the domestic market from Yadana, and would make up for the decline in onshore gas production. But a dispute over the size of the pipeline has unnecessarily delayed its construction. France's Total, US Unocal, and Japan's Mitsui are partners in the joint venture that has proposed a 20-inch, $200-million-line that would have a capacity of 220 million cf/d (290 million cf/d with compression). The government would like to build a 35-inch line with a capacity of 985 million cf/d that would have a price tag of $400 million. There does not seem to be a sound technical or economic basis to build such a large pipeline. The government should move quickly to clear aside the obstacles to building the 20-inch line, which has already been cleared for 60pc debt financing from the Japan Export-Import Bank. Myanmar should rely on market forces to determine the size and timing of future domestic pipeline projects.

NLM, 05/06/99. http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/99nlm/n990605.htm

Chairman of Myanmar Investment Commission Maung Maung Khin received GM Kim Ho Sang of Hyundai Engineering & Construction Co Ltd of Singapore hey discussed development of infrastructure and opportunities in Myanmar.

NLM, 12/06/99. http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/99nlm/n990612.htm

In Beijing, Deputy PM Tin Hla received V-P Bai Jiliang of Sainty International Group, Jiansu Machinery (I&E) Corp. They discussed matters relating to a 4,000-ton cement factory to be built at Mainggalay.

Korea Economic Weekly, 17/07/00. www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/200007/msg00038.html

Hyundai Corp announced that the firm has contracted with MOGE to export 45,000 tons of steel pipe worth US$30 million. The export amount of 20-inch pipe will be loaded from September 2000 through March in 2001. The pipe will be used to construct a gas pipeline promoted by Myanmar government. Hyundai said that it had created a consortium with Hyundai Pipe, SeAH Steel and Shinho Steel to win the supply contract through a public tender.

Hyundai Heavy Industries website, [n.d.] www.hhi.co,kr/english/IndustrialPlant/product/cementplants

Compiler’s note: this reference is no longer available on http://english.hhi.co.kr/]

In 2000, Hyundai Heavy Industries installed a KHI roller mill (330 T/H) for limestone grinding and a KHI roller mill (250 T/H) for pre-grinding of clinker at the Hpa-an [Myaingalay] cement plant.

Ministry of Energy website information, [undated, circa mid-2000]. www.energy.gov.mm/MOGE_3_2.htm

MOGE will lay a natural gas pipeline from Kanbauk in Taninthayi division to Myainggalay in Kayin state. The pipeline will transport 170 million cf/d of natural gas from the gas fields in the Moattama and Taninthayi offshore areas for use in Myainggalay. The pipeline has a total length of 183 miles and will be 20 inches in diameter. The project is targeted foe testing and commissioning by August 2001.

Mon Forum Monthly, February 2006. www.rehmonnya.org/monforum2-06.php

In 2000, the Construction Ministry, the Ministry of Energy, and the South-east Military Command implemented a project to lay a gas pipeline from Kanbauk gas terminal to Myaingkalay cement factory. The construction of the pipeline started in November 2000 and took about ten months to complete. The pipeline passes through Yebyu township, the whole (south-north) length of Ye township, Thanbyuzayat township and Mudon township and part of Kyaikmayaw and Moulmein townships. From there it crosses into Pa’an township in Karen state where the cement factory is situated. In Mon state the route passes through many paddy growing farms, rubber and fruit plantations and even entire villages. Wherever the pipeline passed, the authorities and the army confiscated civilians lands, orchards, plantations and houses without payment and ordered the people to move out as quickly as possible. For example, in the Mon village of Wae-winkara in Thanbyuzayat township where the route passed by seven house the authorities ordered the families to move out and destroy their houses within three days. Soldiers from LIB No. 31 came and threatened the owners with arrest should they disobeying the order. In Kyaikmayaw township 200 acres where rubber trees were growing were confiscated without payment.

NLM, 02/04/01. http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/01nlm/n010402.htm

Lt-Gen Tin Oo and party went to the 4,000-ton cement plant project in Myainggalay where they were briefed on constructions of the plant. The 4,000-ton cement plant will produce cement using the dry process. The project started in February 1999. The plant will undergo a test-run in about December and will produce cement on a commercial scale.

Oral Intervention at the 57th Session of U.N. Commission on Human Rights, July 2001. www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/chr2001ngo-ciir.item10.htm

Khin Ohmar of the Catholic Institute of International Relations: According to our sources, the Burmese military confiscated lands without any compensation along a new gas pipeline construction from Thanbuzayat in Mon state to Myainggalae in Karen state. Many villages on the pipeline route have been forcibly relocated. This pipeline will bring gas from Yetagon gas field for consumption in a cement factory in Myaingalae. We were informed that forced labor is being used for the construction of the pipeline.

NLM, 03/05/02. http://www.myanmargeneva.org/02nlm/n020503.htm

Three KNU terrorist insurgents blew up a gas pipeline near Thabyechaung Creek bridge on the railroad line between Hnit Kayin and Ahnin villages in Ye township on 30 April 2002. The pipeline transports gas from Kanbauk to Myainggale. Watchman U Soe Naing and wife Daw Nyo of Kyeikkhe village sustained burns on their back from the explosion. The three KNU terrorist insurgents holding small arms arrived at the civilian guard house near the bridge at night on 30 April. They tied up U Soe Naing and wife in the guard house, and blew up the pipeline.

DVB, 04/05/02. [not available on-line]

A gas pipeline explosion near Thabyechaung village in Ye tsp on 30 April has caused the Myainggale cement factory to close. Parts of the Moulmein-Ye-Tavoy railway were damaged beyond repair and the Thanbyuzayat-Ye-Tavoy section has been temporarily closed.

Thet Khaing, Myanmar Times, 16/09/02. [not available on-line]

Work has begun on a natural gas pipeline that is expected to ease an electricity supply shortage in Yangon within about two months. Maj-Gen Kyaw Win told a news conference the pipeline would overcome supply shortages at two gas-powered electricity generating stations on the outskirts of the capital. U Aung Koe Shwe of the EPM said the project involved extending a pipeline to Yangon from Thaton, where gas from the Yadana offshore field is used as an energy source at a cement factory. He said the extension would be linked to gas-fired generators at Hlawga and Ahlone. The two power stations need another 60 million cf/d of gas to operate at capacity. The gas will be bought from TotalFinaElf, which operates the Yadana field jointly with MOGE. According to U Aung Koe Shwe, the generators supplying electricity for Yangon are producing about 285 MW an hour, about 100 MW short of the city’s needs.

Win Kyaw Oo, Myanmar Times, 23/12/02. [not available on-line]

A 20-inch diameter, 183-mile pipeline recently laid to Myainggale in Kayin state from the Total pipeline centre in Kanbauk is supplying 20 million cf/d of gas from the Yadana gas field.

Human Rights Foundation of Monland, 31/07/04

http://www.rehmonnya.org/previousnews-detail.php?ID=22

Local authorities in Mon State have forced hundreds of civilians who live along Kanbauk-Myaingkalay Gas Pipeline to fence the pipeline and cover it with earth to prevent attacks from rebel armed groups and protect it from flooding during the rainy season. Villagers were also required to clear grass and bushes along the pipeline. In Thanbyuzayat township, parts of pipeline were exposed by flood waters during the early monsoon in June and local authorities were so concerned about possible sabotage by the rebels that they ordered the villagers to cover these areas in order to camouflage them. At places where the pipeline crosses rivers or streams, it is totally exposed, so the local military ordered the villagers to fence the pipeline in these areas. The villagers had to find and bring the building materials themselves.

IMNA, 16/06/06. http://www.bnionline.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=411&Itemid=8

“The fireball shot up 100 feet with a frightening 'whoosh-whoosh' sound as the Kanbauk-Myaing-Kalay gas pipeline exploded on February 1. “We watched in shocked silence” said villager Myit Twe, still traumatised months later. People living within three kilometers of the explosion site smelt the gas and saw the blaze. “The boom-boom, was laced with the whoosh-whoosh. The villagers near the explosion site spent a sleepless night,” added Myit Twe. Despite the flames and the smell of the gas frightening them, the families settled down because they had seen such a sight before. This was the third time such an explosion has taken place near the village, according to Myit Twe. The most recent explosion has added to the villager’s woes for the local military commander has ordered them to patrol the pipeline and fence part of it that is above ground so that rebels can’t cause explosions. The military has also told the people that they would have to take responsibility if the gas pipeline blew up near their village or farm again. At a meeting a few days after the pipeline exploded, the local commander threatened to kill villagers and shift the villages should there be another explosion. Compiler's note: A series of news items from the same agency tells of half a dozen other occasions in which explosions and major leaks have occurred along the pipeline in the six years since it was finished.

Myanmar Times, 02/10/06. [not available on-line]

Repairs have been completed on a pipeline that supplies natural gas to four power plants in Yangon. Problems along the pipeline were blamed for blackouts in Yangon. The 320-km (199-mile) pipeline carries 3.1 million cu m (110 million cu ft) of gas a day to the Ywama gas control station from Yadana gas project in Tanintharyi division.

Total Yadana website information, [undated: around the beginning of 2007]. http://burma.total.com/en/contexte/p_1_3.htm

Contractually, Myanmar is entitled to take up to 20% of Yadana's production for domestic consumption. Until recently, it was taking about 40 to 50 million cu ft per day (1.1 to 1.4 million cu m), approximately half of its entitlement. Since December 2006, it is taking 100 to 110 million cubic feet per day (2.8 to 3.1 million cu m). The gas is piped from the Yadana pipeline at Kanbauk further north to a cement factory in Myaingkalay and then to Yangon via a pipeline built and operated by MOGE.

NLM, 28/12/07. http://mission.itu.ch/MISSIONS/Myanmar/07nlm/n071228.htm

Natural gas production at the Yadana offshore gas field will be suspended while repairs are carried out to the production process of the field from 28 December, 2007 to 7 January, 2008. Gas-powered plants and factories are to reduce their production during the period. However, the authorities have already taken necessary measures not to affect the supply of electricity to Yangon during the period.

NLM, 28/04/08. http://www.myanmargeneva.org/08nlm/n080428.htm

Power generation at the Ahlon, Hlawga, Ywama and Thakayta power plants that supply electricity to Yangon will be cut to 100 MW while offshore a pipe line that provides gas to the four plants is temporarily closed down for repairs. The service interruption will last from 6 pm on 27 April to 6 pm on 29 April, the Yangon City Electricity Supply Board announced.

Anatoaneta Bezlova, IPS, 10/09/08. http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=16754

Although Burma ranks 10th in the world in terms of natural gas reserves, its per capita electricity consumption is less than 5pc of neighboring Thailand and China, as its government exports most of the country’s energy resources.

NLM, 01/02/09. http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs6/NLM2009-02-01.pdf

The gas pipelines of the Yadana natural gas project have been under maintenance since 24 January. So, production [of electricity at natural-gas fired plants] has fallen to some extent. In the meantime, power supply was increased from hydroelectric sources to cover demand. But on 26 January, some KNU and KNPP terrorists blasted towers 220 and 222 of the Lawpita-Toungoo grid near Thaukyaykhat creek, so the supply of electricity available is limited and the regions concerned will have to share. Efforts are being made to restore regular power supply as soon as possible.

NLM, 14/08/09. http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs07/NLM2009-08-14.pd

Energy minister Lun Thi inspects the site for laying a natural gas pipeline across the Hline river on 10/08/09. The pipeline, which is being undertaken by MOGE, will terminate at the Ahlon gas power plant. After the minister was briefed on the use of horizontal directional drilling techniques under the bed of the Hline river, he oversaw laying of the pipeline from the Ahlone bank. The 24-inch diameter pipeline is being laid at a depth of 42 feet and will reach 3,100 feet across the river. The work is a part of a project which will bring natural gas from the offshore Yadana field to Yangon.

Kyaw Kyaw Hlaing NLM, 05/06/10. Rewritten and condensed.

http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/NLM2010-06-05.pdf

MOGE has been supplying natural gas from the Yadana offshore natural gas region through a 20-inch diamenter pipe that was connected from Kanbauk to Myainggale in 2000 and extended from Myainggale to Yangon in 2006. Gas supplied through a new 24-inch pipeline will be distributed to the four power stations at Hlawga, Ywama, Thaketa, and Ahlone to fire electric turbines there, as well as to state and privately-owned factories that use natural gas. It will also be supplied to the Pinpek steel plant in Taunggyi, cement plants in the Pyinyaung region of Thazi township, the Taungphila, Yeni and Mindon cement plants in Nay Pyi Taw, as well as to other factories. The offshore Yadana gas platform will pipe 150 million cubic feet of natural gas per day at 1400 pressure psi to the pipeline center in Daw Nyein village in Pyapon district from where it will be piped to Yangon at 800 pressure psi. The new 24-inch diameter pipeline is of international standard with a 30-year life span. A world-famous oil and gas company had proposed to erect the new pipeline at a cost of US$ 760 million in a three-year period. But, MOGE has constructed it in just 15 months at a cost of only US$275 and K 4111 million. The 24-inch diameter natural gas pipeline is laid on the floor of sea underwater along a 94-mile route from the Yadana natural gas platform to Daw Nyein village in Pyapon District. TL Geohydrographic Co of Malaysia and privately-owned SMART Technical Services of Myanmar surveyed the 85-mile-long land route from Daw Nyein to the Ywama gas supply station. [The article provides much more detail about the laying of the pipe-line. Several photos and a diagram are included in the print edition of NLM.]

NLM, 10/06/10. Condensed. http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/NLM2010-06-10.pdf

At the Yadana natural gas platform in the Gulf of Mottama, Energy Minister Lun Thi launches the operation of the 24-inch diameter offshore natural gas line that will transport natural gas to Yangon. The minister and party view installation of the globe valve that controls the gas flow, gas metering devices and measurement works. Then they travel to the pipeline center camp near Daw Nyein village in Ahmar township in Pyapon district where they are briefed on the building of the pipeline center which forwards the gas to the distribution station at Ywama near Yangon. An onshore pipeline covering 85.43 miles and an offshore pipeline covering 94.52 miles have been laid between the Yadana platform and the distribution station at Ywama. A test-run of the pipeline was completed successfully and since 08/06/10 natural gas has been sent through the new 24-inch diameter pipeline.

NLM, 19/10/11. Edited and abridged. http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs12/NLM2011-10-18.pdf

During the session of the Pyithu Hluttaw on 18/10/11, U Aye Mauk of Mahlaing Constituency asked whether there was a plan to supply natural gas as fuel to private and government paper mills and cement plants; whether priority would be given to sales of natural gas from inland and offshore sources to domestic customers instead of foreign customers. Energy Minister Than Htay replied that natural gas from both inland and offshore fields was being supplied to State-owned and private-owned factories and workshops across the nation. He said that at present, national demand stood at 572 million cu ft per day. Of this the Energy Ministry was able to supply 240 million cf/d from its own sources, accounting for 42pc of national demand. 49pc of the gas used in the nation was consumed in electric power generation, 32pc by the industrial sector, 11pc for the production of raw materials and 7pc to supply the transport sector. 11pc of the natural gas was used at three fertilizer plants and two liquefied natural gas plants under the Ministry of Energy. 9pc of the natural gas used nationally was being supplied to state-owned cement plants. Of the natural gas produced on inland fields 70 million cf/d was inadequate for local consumption and about 200 million cf/d was received from the Yadana offshore field. Starting in 2013, a total of 160 million cf/d would be taken from the Shwe and Zawtika offshore fields for domestic consumption. This would make available about 430 million cf/d of natural gas. Moreover, all the natural gas from Block M-3 of the Mottama offshore field would be made available to the state and private sectors.

Juliet Shwe Gaung, Myanmar Times, 26/12/11 (Issue 607).

http://mmtimes.com/2011/business/607/biz3160703.html

Businesses in Yangon’s industrial zones have been warned by the Yangon Electricity Supply Board that there will be major power cuts from December 29 to January 1. The cuts will run from 5am to 11pm to allow repairs to be performed to the Yetagun gas platform, which is off the coast of Tanintharyi Region and is operated by Petronas. However, the cuts to normal consumers would be limited, an official said: “Apart from the industrial zones the cuts will only be about 1.5 hours a day.” (Compiler’s note: Natural gas from the Yetagun project would be supplied to Yangon through the pipeline that runs north to Yangon through Taninthayi Region and Mon State. This is the first reference I have come across that indicates that the Yetgun project is also supplying natural gas for use in Myanmar through this pipeline. Other news items have focussed on the Yadana offshore project as the source of the natural gas piped through this line.)

Additional references
See above: ‘More gas to be diverted from Yadana for national use’ (MT: 14/01/08)

‘Ywama power station dependent on gas distribution system’ (NLM, 01/02/07)

‘Pipeline to solve electricity shortages’ (MT: 16/09/02)

‘Yadana gas will fire electric power plants in Myanmar’ (MP: Sept 1995)

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Appendix 7
PLATTS ELECTRIC POWER PROFILE FOR MYANMAR
Compiler’s notes: Internal references indicate that this article was researched in 2006-07 and published in mid-2007. The Myanmar profile was posted on the Net for a few months after it was first published but is now available for puchase only. The factual inaccuracies in the profile have been left uncorrected in the version that appears below.
Myanmar's power system was nationalized in 1951 when the government formed the Electricity Supply Board (ESB) from scattered private utilities, the largest being in Yangon. The state-owned utility Myanma Electric Power Enterprise (MEPE) was created from the ESB in 1972 and now operates as the Ministry of Electric Power (EPM). The government holds an effective monopoly on the electricity business in Myanmar.
In 2006, EPM's capacity was 1,750 MW and power production was 6,064 GWh. This may be compared to 2,226 GWh in 1989 and 4,508 GWh in 2000. As of mid-2007, the country's 10 largest power plants were Hlawga/Ahlone in Yangon (298 MW, combined-cycle), Paunglaung in Mandalay division (280 MW, hydro), Baluchaung in Kayah state (196 MW, hydro), Tikyit in Shan state (120 MW, coal-fired), Tharkayta in Yangon (92 MW, combined-cycle), Ywama in Yangon (90 MW, oil- and gas-fired steam and gas turbine), Shwedaung in Bago division (80 MW, gas turbine), Mone in Magway division (75 MW hydro) and Myanaung in Ayeyarwady division (68 MW, gas turbine). Other simple-cycle gas turbine plants are Kyunchaung (54 MW) and Mann (37 MW), both in Magway division. Additional hydroelectric plants include Kinda in Mandalay Division (56 MW), Thaphanseik in Sagaing division (30 MW), Zawgyi-1 and Zawgyi-2 in Shan state (30 MW), Sedawgi in Mandalay division (25 MW), and Zaungtu in Bago division (20 MW).
Myanmar's peak demand in 2006 was 1,140 MW, almost four times the 332-MW peak in 1989, but not too different from the 1,005 MW value reported for 2000. There is no particular rural electrification strategy in place and per capita consumption remains very low. There are few known autoproducers.
In addition to new construction, EPM has a variety of rehabilitation and modernization programs underway. One important project is at the Baluchuang-2 plant where the first three units were built in the 1950s using war reparation funds from Japan. In September 2001, Tokyo Electric Power Co and Nippon Koei Co, a Japanese engineering company, were awarded a modernization contract for the Hitachi Pelton turbine/generator (T/G) sets at Baluchuang-2 (6 X 28 MW).
EPM sold 4,353 GWh in 2006 and has 1.3 million customers. At last report, industrial customers accounted for 38% of sales, residential customers for 41%, bulk sales (direct connection) for 18%, and other customers for the balance. Electricity pricing policies are poorly-developed in Myanmar and reflect the lack of modern meters and billing infrastructure. According to the ASEAN Centre for Energy, Myanmar's flat- rate electricity tariff as of 2005 was 7.3 U.S. cents/kWh.
EPM operates three grids interconnected by 230- and 132kV lines with a total system length of 5,131km. The main grid moves power from Baluchaung south to Yangon at 230kV, and north to Thazi and Mandalay in central Myanmar at 132kV. An extension runs west from Thazi to Chauk and the gas-turbine plant at Kyunchaung. A southwestern grid connects Prome [Pyay] to the gas turbine plant at Myanaung and operates at 66kV. A third system supplies the Manna [Manmaw = Bhamo] area at 33- and 11kV. System losses are very high at about 35%.
Germany's Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbrau (KFW) helped fund a 230kV line from Thazi to Toungoo, which is used to evacuate power from the new hydro plant at Paunglaung. In January 2007, China Power Grid International Economic and Trade Co signed a contract with EPM for equipment supply for a 230kV line on the route Belin-Monywa-Meiktila-Taungdwingyi plus substations at Mongsan, Shweli, and Shwesaryan.
EPM has 76 transmission substations with installed capacity of 2,569 MVA. Myanmar's distribution lines are at 11-, 6.6-, and 3.3kV and measure 30,858km. There are 12,493 distribution substations and transformers with installed capacity of 4,996 MVA.
Myanmar's hydroelectric potential is immense, perhaps as much as 100 GW. In large measure, major power plant development in Myanmar in the near- and medium-term will depend on the development of power exports, and particularly on the outcome of a July 1997 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Myanmar and Thailand for power sales of about 1,500 MW. Working groups from both countries were formed to finalize and implement the agreement, but intermittent economic problems in the region plus the high cost of large-scale hydroelectric plants have delayed implementation of the export-oriented power projects. Several are now underway, but, in any event, Myanmar's national requirements are continuing to increase so MEP has an active construction program to supply domestic needs. . . .
[Compiler's note: Details about individual power plants and projects covered in the Platts Profile are omitted at this point in the profile but are included with appropriate key articles in the compendium.]
Myanmar has a large number of hydroelectric plants of all sizes and these will be the main focus of renewable power plant development for some time. Since 1990, YMEC has supplied equipment for about a dozen minihydro plants in Myanmar.
The deployment of wind and direct solar energy plants will cost far more than Myanmar can afford at this point, particularly given the abundance of other energy resources. Nonetheless, the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology and the Ministry of Science and Technology have made some preliminary investigations into the wind resource in the hilly parts of Chin and Shan states, in coastal regions, and in the central part of the country where Japan's New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) has constructed two meteorological observation stations. EPM, NEDO, and NEWJEC have also installed wind and solar measuring devices at four other locations.
Another potential non-fossil resource is geothermal energy. Myanmar has identified nearly 100 hot springs and during 1987, MOGE, EPM and Japan's Electric Power Development Co (EPDC) completed sampling and measurements at five locations in Mon and Shan States. More studies were done in 1990 and again in 1995, however, no firm plans have been established to attempt to exploit these resources for electricity production.
There has been increasing commercial pressure on Myanmar's timber resources which, with agricultural biomass, are important energy resources in rural areas. The government estimates that 65% of Myanmar's primary energy usage is from biomass, although this is well down from the 80% share estimated a decade ago. Around half of Myanmar remains forest-covered and the Ministry of Forestry has embarked on an ambitious public education and afforestation program, particularly in the dryer areas in the center of the country. To reduce the pressure on wood fuel stocks, the government is also encouraging the deployment of biogas digesters to supply fuel and lighting.
Myanmar's electricity sector has barely entered the "take-off" stage and operation of virtually any part of the transmission and distribution system could be modernized and improved to great benefit. The transmission system is considered to be in reasonably good condition, but there are bottlenecks at key voltage transformation points. Development of Myanmar's big electricity export projects has been delayed, but the generating projects already under construction or in advanced planning will suffice to meet domestic demand growth for some time.
The country has attracted perhaps disproportionate interest from both large commercial enterprises and activist non-governmental organizations for two reasons: an abundance of natural resources and large areas of almost undisturbed wilderness occupied by tribal communities. When long-running ethnic and separatist conflicts are added to the mix, it can be seen that sustainable economic development in Myanmar will be more than usually complex.
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