Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
56
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
Figure 6.
Ex situ jaguar births in
North America, sorted by month, from 1927 through2013 (Association of Zoos
and Aquariums, 2013).
For wild jaguars, reproductive information recorded is quite similar to what has been recorded in
zoos. Across the entire geographic range, jaguar births have also been recorded in every month of the
year (Ewer, 1973). Rabinowitz (1986a) reports a peak birthrate in Belize between June and August, while
Quigley and Crawshaw (2001) describe them giving birth between March
and June in the Southern
Pantanal. In both wild cases, higher birthrate correlates to greater availability of prey at that time of year.
Males may show a slight seasonality in androgen levels throughout the year. Like the females, the
reproductive hormones of wild males appear to increase during the receding of the floodwaters, and are
probably linked to increased abundance of prey (Morato
et al., 2004).
Females reach sexual maturity at one to two and a half years of age (Tewes & Schmidly, 1987).
Males reach sexual maturity at three to four years of age (Ewer, 1973). Females in estrus can exhibit
behaviors including restlessness, pacing, rolling, and prolonged vocalizations (Stehlik, 1971). Once a
female enters estrus, she may venture outside the normal home range and as a result be courted by
several males (Nowak, 1991).
Gestation takes between 93 and 105 days, tending toward 100 days. At birth, an average jaguar cub
measures approximately 40 centimeters in length and weighs between 700 and 900 grams, although this
varies with the health status of the mother and the number of cubs born. In zoos, the cubs’ eyes are often
open on the first day and almost always by the third. They are walking clumsily by three weeks of age and
able to follow their mother outdoors by two months. At approximately 10
weeks they begin to consume
some meat and are nursing infrequently, if at all, by age six months (Seymour, 1989).
Average litter size in zoos is 1.7 cubs. Singleton litters represent 45.3% of zoo births, followed by two-
cub litters at 39.9%. Three cubs are produced in only 14.2% of litters; and four cubs are born 0.6% of the
time. Litter sizes larger than four have not been recorded (Association of Zoos and Aquariums, 2013).
This corresponds fairly closely with Rabinowitz’ observations of jaguar cubs in Belize (Seymour, 1989): in
23 sightings of mothers with offspring, there was a single cub 35% of the time, two cubs 53% of the time
and three cubs 13% of the time. Also similar to zoo management experience, wild offspring have been
observed traveling with their mothers for up to two years, but occasionally may become independent
before one year of age.
The most accurate method of characterizing female reproductive activity is through a longitudinal
assessment of ovarian hormones. This evaluation can be conducted non-invasively by analyzing steroid
metabolites excreted in feces. Fecal samples can be collected, and ovarian (estrogen and progestogen),
and adrenal (corticoid – as an index of stress) steroid metabolites analyzed. These data are most useful if
Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
57
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
additional data on behavioral, environmental, and nutritional changes of the jaguar are taken throughout
the evaluation period. For information
on collecting, labeling, storing, and sending fecal samples to the
National Zoo for analysis, see the AZA Jaguar SSP “Guidelines for Captive Management of Jaguars”
(Law, 2009). Confirmation of pregnancy can be obtained by ultrasound, which requires anesthesia, or by
analyzing fecal and urine levels of progesterone with radio- or enzyme-immunoassays.
Semen collection under anesthesia is an accurate method of gaining information on male fertility. As
with all anesthetic events, food should be withheld for at least 24 hours and water for 12 hours before
anesthesia induction. Some anesthesia protocols will increase the chances of urine contamination in
semen samples due to relaxation of the bladder. The recommended anesthetic for use in jaguars for
semen collection is Telazol, dosed at 6–8 mg/kg. Supplementation with
ketamine is acceptable, but
isoflurane increases chances of urine contamination, and its application should be delayed until after
semen collection. For semen collection and evaluation, after reaching a surgical plane of anesthesia,
each testis is measured as described in Howard, 1993, and a combined testicular volume calculated. The
penis is extruded from its sheath and examined for the presence of spines (scale of 1-3, 3 = most
prominent spines [Swanson
et al., 1995; Morato
et al., 2001]). Sperm is collected and evaluated by
measuring: 1) semen volume, sperm count, motility, and
forward progressive status; 2) proportions of
normal and abnormal sperm forms, all via phase microscopy (630x) [Howard
et al., 1990] and 3)
acrosomal integrity using the rose bengal/fast green stain (Pope
et al., 1991). Sperm can be collected by
electro ejaculation (Morato
et al., 1999; Morato
et al., 2001). Semen is usually very dilute (~5 x 106/ml)
but large volumes are generally recovered (up to 20 ml) (Swanson
et al., 1995; Morato
et al., 2001;
Morato
et al., 2003). Jaguars are normospermic (average ~65% normal) and survive cryopreservation
relatively well (Morato
et al., 2003). Reproductive traits of Latin American managed males (i.e., sperm
concentration, motility and morphology) have been found to be inferior to counterparts living in North
American zoos (Swanson
et al., 1995) and freshly captured conspecifics (Morato
et al., 2001).
Differences were unrelated to seasonal or weather factors, but appeared to be associated with poor
health and nutrition in the
ex situ population (Swanson
et al., 1995; Morato
et al., 1999; Morato
et al.,
2001).
Artificial insemination has not been successful in the jaguar as far as we know, so all breeding has
been natural. Anecdotally, breeding success seems to increase when jaguars are separated for a period
of time leading up to estrus. Cats that have been housed together for long periods may not be as apt to
copulate. See Section 5.3 Introductions and Reintroductions for a discussion of animal introductions.
Most large felids are solitary in nature except during periods of breeding activity. As a result, extreme
caution and patience is recommended during introductions to facilitate pairings. Compatibility between
animals can
be achieved through extended, controlled introductions in a night house shift area, or
adjacent enclosure, which allow auditory, olfactory, and visual contact, but prevent actual physical
contact. Utilizing such “howdy” barriers, an introduction schedule can be set up over a period of days or
weeks to gradually reduce them until the animals are introduced into the same space. Safe measures to
separate the cats, such as water hoses or CO
2
fire extinguishers, are recommended to be available in
case of aggression. Prior to the introduction, male and female jaguars can be
housed in adjacent
enclosures without visual contact, but with olfactory and auditory contact. Further olfactory contact can be
provided by allowing each animal out into the exhibit on alternate days. This allows each cat to be aware
and investigate the presence of another jaguar nearby through olfactory recognition of marked spots and
other deposits in the exhibit (AZA Jaguar SSP Management Group and Advisors, personal
communication, 2014).
With anecdotal justification, male jaguars in zoos have the reputation for ferocity and unpredictable
behavior (Rabinowitz, 2014). However, jaguars bred in North American zoos since the 1990s have
demonstrated certain fairly predictable reproductive behaviors. When the male is introduced to a
landscape already held by the female, his approach is often cautious. The female may, or may not,
present herself for copulation, but, even if she does not, she will often turn on the male growling and
snarling. If the pair is unfamiliar with one another, the female usually strikes at the
male with her forepaws
and may deliver wounds that draw blood. If this is already a compatible pair, this behavior may be gentler
and even playful. Regardless, it is conjectured that the female assesses the male’s fitness in these
encounters
—
expecting him to return and attempt copulation again. If he is ultimately accepted, the male
mounts the female, grasping her neck in his jaws, and mating is completed in a few seconds. The male
quickly dismounts and usually is driven off, yet again, by the female. This pattern is repeated, often