CHApTer 6
The Need to Justify Our Actions
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had cheated became more lenient toward cheating, and those who
had resisted the temptation to cheat adopted a harsher attitude.
Our prediction is that as you read this, you are thinking about
your own beliefs about cheating and how they might relate to your
own behavior. Not long ago, a scandal broke out at a Florida busi-
ness school. In one course, a professor discovered, more than half
the students had cribbed from an exam stolen in advance. When
interviewed, those who cheated said things like, “Hey, no big deal.
Everyone does it.” Those who refrained from cheating said, “What
the cheaters did was awful. They are lazy and unethical. And they are
planning for careers in business?”
Take another look at Figure 6.2 and imagine yourself at the top of
that pyramid, about to make any important decision, such as whether
to stay with a current romantic partner or break up, use illegal drugs
or not, choose this major or that one, get involved in politics or not.
Keep in mind that once you make a decision, you are going to justify
it to reduce dissonance, and that justification may later make it hard
for you to change your mind . . . even when you should.
Dissonance, Culture, and the Brain
Cognitive dissonance theory has been supported by thousands of
studies, some in related areas such as cognition (biases in how the
brain processes information), memory (how we shape our current
memories to be consonant with our self-concepts), and attitudes
(see Chapter 7). Investigators are learning what aspects of cognitive
dissonance seem to be universal, hardwired in the brain, and which
vary across cultures.
Dissonance in the Brain
Experiments with monkeys and chimps
support the notion that cognitive dissonance has some built-in, adap-
tive functions. Remember the study in which homemakers ranked
appliances and then, after getting to keep an appliance of their choice,
lowered their ranking of the previously attractive appliance they did
not choose? When monkeys and chimps are placed in a similar situ-
ation, having to choose between different-colored M&Ms instead of
kitchen appliances, they later reduced their preference for the color
of M&Ms they had not chosen (Egan, Santos, & Bloom, 2007; see
also West et al., 2010). Among primates, this research suggests, it has
been of evolutionary benefit to stick with a decision once made.
Neuroscientists have tracked brain activity to discover what parts
of the brain are active when a person is in a state of dissonance and
motivated to do something to reduce it (Harmon-Jones, 2010). Using
fMRI technology, they can monitor neural activity in specific areas
while people are experiencing various kinds of dissonance: for example, while they are
rating their preferences for things they had chosen and those they had rejected, while
they are arguing that the uncomfortable scanner experience was actually quite pleas-
ant, or while they are confronted with unwelcome information. The areas of the brain
that are activated during dissonance include the striatum and other highly specific areas
within the prefrontal cortex, the site prominently involved in planning and decision
making (Izuma et al., 2010; Qin et al., 2011; van Veen et al., 2009).
In a study of people who were trying to process dissonant or consonant informa-
tion about their preferred presidential candidate, Drew Westen and his colleagues
(2006) found that the reasoning areas of the brain virtually shut down when a person
is confronted with dissonant information and the emotion circuits of the brain light
up happily when consonance is restored. As Westen put it, people twirl the “cognitive
kaleidoscope” until the pieces fall into the pattern they want to see, and then the brain
“It’s not so unethical;
I need this grade.”
“Cheating is really
wrong; everyone loses.”
“Oh, please, it’s no big deal”……….“It’s disgusting! Expel cheaters!”
Attitude toward cheating
“It’s not a good thing…”
“…but it’s not such a
bad thing.”
Attitude toward cheating
Attitude toward cheating
Figure 6.2
The Cheating pyramid
Imagine two students taking an
exam. Both are tempted to cheat.
Initially, their attitudes toward cheat-
ing are almost identical, but then
one impulsively cheats and the
other does not. Their attitudes will
then undergo predictable changes.
(Created by Carol Tavris. Used by
permission.)
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CHApTer 6
The Need to Justify Our Actions
repays them by activating circuits involved in pleasure. It seems that the feeling of cog-
nitive dissonance can literally make your brain hurt!
Dissonance across Cultures
We can find dissonance operating in almost every part
of the world (e.g., Beauvois & Joule, 1996; Imada & Kitayama, 2010; Sakai, 1999), but
it does not always take the same form, and the content of the cognitions that produce
it may differ across cultures. In “collectivist” societies, where the needs of the group
matter more than the needs of the individual, dissonance-reducing behavior might
be less prevalent, at least on the surface (Triandis, 1995). In such cultures, we’d be more
likely to find behavior aimed at maintaining group harmony and less likely to see people
justifying their own personal misbehavior—but more likely to see people experiencing
dissonance when their behavior shames or disappoints others.
Japanese social psychologist Haruki Sakai (1999), combining his interest in dis-
sonance with his knowledge of Japanese community orientation, found that, in Japan,
many people will vicariously experience dissonance on the part of someone they know
and like. The observers’ attitudes change to conform to those of their dissonance-
reducing friends. In two other experiments, the Japanese justified their choices when
they felt others were observing them while they were making their decision, but not
later; this pattern was reversed for Americans (Imada & Kitayama, 2010). The per-
ceived privacy or public visibility of the choice being made interacts with culture to
determine whether dissonance is aroused and the choice needs to be justified.
Nonetheless, some causes of dissonance are apparently international and intergen-
erational. In multicultural America, immigrant parents and their young-adult children
often clash over cultural values: the children want to be like their peers, but their elders
want them to be like them. This conflict often creates enormous dissonance in the chil-
dren because they love their parents but do not embrace all of their values. In a longitu-
dinal study of Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents in the United States, those who
were experiencing the most cognitive dissonance were most likely to get into trouble,
do less well in school, and fight more with their parents (Choi, He, & Harachi, 2008).
Self-Justification
in everyday Life
Suppose you put in a lot of effort to get into a particular
club and it turns out to be a totally worthless organiza-
tion, consisting of boring, pompous people doing trivial
activities. You would feel pretty foolish, wouldn’t you?
A sensible person doesn’t work hard to gain something
worthless. Such a circumstance would produce significant
dissonance; your cognition that you are a sensible, adept
human being is dissonant with your cognition that you
worked hard to get into a dismal group. How would you
reduce this dissonance?
The Justification of effort
You might start by finding a way to convince yourself that
the club and the people in it are nicer, more interesting, and
more worthwhile than they appeared to be at first glance.
How can one turn boring people into interesting people and
a trivial club into a worthwhile one? Easy. Even the most
boring people and trivial clubs have some redeeming quali-
ties. Activities and behaviors are open to a variety of interpretations; if we are motivated
to see the best in people and things, we will tend to interpret these ambiguities in a
positive way. We call this the justification of effort, the tendency for individuals to
increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.
Justification of effort
The tendency for individuals to
increase their liking for something
they have worked hard to attain.
The harsh training required to
become a marine will increase the
recruits’ feelings of cohesiveness
and their pride in the corps.
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