This suggests that a clearly articulated position is a necessary first step to success.
Moreover, in
Competitive Strategy
, Porter proffers five competitive forces as an
instructive introduction of how to consider micro-level factors shaping the com-
petitive structure of an industry: intensity of industry competition, bargaining
powers of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers, degree of substitutes, and entry
and exit barriers. ‘The underlying structure of an industry, reflected in the strength
of the forces, should be distinguished from many short-run factors that can affect
competition and profitability in a transient way’ (Porter 1980: 6). Consider media
and entertainment conglomerates such as Disney, AOL Time Warner, News Cor-
poration, Pearson, and Bertelsmann. Capital costs to enter are relatively high and
oligopolistic tendencies are prevalent so that most entertainment industry seg-
ments come to be ruled by large companies with relatively easy access to large
pools of capital. Marketing expenditures per unit are high, which highlights the
importance of marketing to generating revenue streams. Ancillary markets provide
disproportionately large returns (e.g. the initial theatrical release of a film is
becoming less significant a source for overall revenue when examined alongside
revenue from cable and home videos, and merchandising associated with character
licences). Strong popular appeal is crucial if a vehicle is to generate revenue.
Searching for universal appeal helps to account for the abundance of action flicks
starring well-known actors or actresses.
Within each industry, there are clusters or groups of firms competing in a similar
manner. The firm’s level of success is determined not only by the industry in which
the firm operates, but also the strategic cluster in which it competes. The concept of
‘positioning’ becomes important as it implies a frame of reference, that of competi-
tors and consumers. Positioning decisions are crucial: they can have an impact on
perception and choice decisions. Positioning starts with a product, according to
Reis and Trout (1981), and then focuses on what is created in the minds of custom-
ers. Positioning is about the image of the product in the minds of the selected target
group
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