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romance into an ode to virtuous married life.* Tennyson made further changes to his
Welsh source: rather than the dramatic action of the original, Tennyson’s version was
comprised o f a series of dialogues; and instead of the more fantastical elements of the
Welsh romance, the idyll was more naturalistic - more recognisable to a
contemporary Victorian audience. He was also careful to remove the Welsh
nationalist sentiments that were evident in the earlier years of Arthurian scholarship
and literary production. His remodelling of ‘Geraint’ perfectly fits into the larger,
domesticated structure o f the central section o f the Idylls - its Welsh origins lending
no more than a Celtic flavour to a poem dedicated, as Tennyson wrote in ‘To the
Queen’, to ‘an ever broadening England’.64
After successfully synthesising diverse French and Welsh sources into an
English bourgeois structure, Tennyson mostly drew his subsequent idylls from the
Morte Darthur, though several are almost wholly original.* But unlike Malory, whose
protagonist is most often Lancelot, Tennyson placed Arthur at the epicentre of his
work.* More than anything else, the king of the Idylls is a paragon of virtue. In the
Romantic tradition he was frequently castigated as the most criminal o f all the
Knights of the Round Table - he was an adulterer in Walter Scott’s ‘The Bridal of
Triermain’, a coward in Anne Bannerman’s ‘The Prophecy of Merlin’ (1801) and an
ineffectual ruler in a host of other texts. But in the Idylls he is repeatedly described as
a ‘blameless king’, capable of inspiring not only great deeds from his followers but
also imbuing them with something of his own Christ-like nature.65 The monk
* It remains unclear whether Tennyson knew Chretien’s Erec et Enide, the focus o f which is not about
the primacy of marriage (as in Tennyson) but the need for a warrior-knight to fight.
f Of the other nine Idylls, the most original were ‘The Coming o f Arthur’, ‘The Last Tournament’
(which took only incidental details from Malory) and ‘Guinevere’, which derived only its setting from
the Morte Darthur.
* ‘For Lancelot was the first in Tournament, / But Arthur mightiest on the battlefield’ (‘Gareth and
Lynette’, 11. 485-6).
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Ambrosius describes Arthur’s knights as ‘like to coins, / Some true, some light, but
every one o f you / Stamp’d with the image of the King’.66 A similar passage occurs in
Bedivere’s description o f the founding o f the Round Table, at which ‘[a] momentary
likeness of the King’ appeared in each o f the knights’ faces.67 These knights revere
‘the King, as if he were / Their conscience, and their conscience as their king’.68 In an
age of constitutional monarchy, Tennyson did not present Arthur as some warlike
autocrat; instead, it was as a moral entity - ‘Ideal manhood closed in real man’ - that
Tennyson made the figure o f a sixth-century king, and hence the whole Arthurian
legend, relevant to his contemporary readers.69 Within this ‘[n]ew-old’ tale, he was
the figurehead of a new moral code - chivalry - that was presented as an ideal model
of Victorian society.70 Like Arthur’s knights, the reader became stamped with the
image of the king.
Yet despite Arthur’s perfection, the focus of the Idylls is firmly on the
cynicism, falsehood and moral decay which gradually overwhelm Arthur’s court.
Indeed, Tennyson’s conception of Arthurian society was rooted in its demise: the
poem that was to become the conclusion to the cycle, the 1842 ‘Morte d’Arthur’, was
the first to be composed and thus the creative inception of the Idylls was its very
destruction; the Arthurian story was essentially rewritten as tragedy. In the first poem
of the narrative sequence, ‘The Coming of Arthur’, the king proclaims in response to
Rome’s demand for tribute: ‘The old order changeth, yielding place to new’ - words
echoed in the final idyll as the kingdom is destroyed.71 And between these two poems,
the Idylls chart this demise through the symbolism of contrasting themes brought
jarringly together. The personal failure of Arthur to uphold the systems of power and
authority are the result o f his inability to marry his own lofty idealism with the sensual
world, symbolised by Guinevere. Merlin’s destruction is the result o f the intellect
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being similarly corrupted by the sexual, in his desire for Vivien. Lancelot and
Guinevere’s adultery demonstrates the disastrous conflicts between passion and the
social construct o f marriage. The whole kingdom is destroyed by the knights’ and
their ladies’ inability to harmonise domestic desires with public duty. It is no accident
that of the ten central idylls o f this great domestic tragedy, all save ‘The Holy Grail’
are directly focussed on the relationships of brothers, lovers, husbands and wives, and
the impact these relationships have on the state. Although this is a theme that is
apparent in many medieval romances - the Stanzaic Morte Arthur being a notable
example - never before had the impact of each character’s action and moral state
mattered so much to the wellbeing of society.
*
*
*
*
*
The question Everard Hall asks in ‘The Epic’ is ‘why should any man / Remodel
models?’ Bluntly, the answer is that the Victorian era required a national epic. More
precisely, the bourgeoisie, through monumental achievements o f industry* colonialism
and social change, had acquired a dominant position which required cultural
validation.* The story o f Arthur had from at least the time o f Geoffrey’s Historia
provided elite social groups with such legitimisation. Yet the Arthurian story’s
historic ideological utility resulted in a paradoxical situation for Victorian writers.
They wished to invest the Matter of Britain with their own ideological positions, in
order to present bourgeois power as emerging from an historical continuum, yet they
also had to divorce the Arthurian story from its previous cultural utility as aristocratic
* Of course, the English bourgeoisie were already achieving cultural validation through the form of the
realist novel. The great ideologues of the mid-Victorian era - Dickens, Eliot, Gaskell and Thackeray
among others - were already producing monuments to liberal capitalism by the time Tennyson was
publishing the Idylls from 1859 on. The realist novel, however, operated in a piecemeal fashion. Its
concerns, by necessity of its genre, were geographically-localised and temporally specific. What
Tennyson provided was an epic - raising the concerns, ideals and beliefs of the English middle classes
to the status of myth. The Idylls are as close an embodiment of the bourgeois ideological superstructure
as one poet could achieve. It was unique among the cultural achievements o f the Victorian age.
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