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was the recitation of Tennyson’s ‘Sir Galahad’.90 Many individual paintings and even
sculptures and figures took their scenes directly from Tennyson’s poetry, though they
often to claim Malory as source: William Holman Hunt’s The Lady ofShalott (1886-
1905), George Frampton’s Enid the Fair (1907) and Arthur Hughes’ Sir Galahad
(1870, fig. 7), among others. Burne-Jones’s Merlin and Vivien (1870-4) was based not
only on Tennyson’s idyll but also on a conversation the painter held with the poet in
1858.91 Indeed, the depiction of affective moments in history and literature which
characterises so many paintings of the Pre-Raphaelites and their ancillaries can be
seen as a conjunctive to Tennyson’s poetic ethos.92 Similarly, although musicologists
have tended to study the grander Arthurian works of Wagner and others,93 it is also
notable that Tennyson inspired a surge in lighter Arthurian music in the mid-Victorian
period. Many shorter works for piano and voice were published for performance in
the drawing rooms o f bourgeois England. Especially popular for musical setting was
Vivien’s song, ‘In love if love be love’.94 And though of minor interest in themselves,
they serve as potent reminders of how Tennyson transformed a medieval legend
which had to be ‘secreted from the fair sex’ into a respectable epic that was welcomed
into middle-class homes.
Tennyson’s Idylls were made available in numerous translations across Europe
and, in English, they were transmitted across the Empire, often with didactic intent.95
In the United States Tennyson largely defined the way in which the older Arthurian
myths were received. As Alan Lupack and Barbara Tepa Lupack have shown,
nineteenth and early twentieth-century American Arthuriana was largely written in
response to the Idylls, though James Russell Lowell’s The Vision o f Sir Launfal
(1848) preceded Tennyson’s own version of the myth by a decade.96 Many works
were obvious parodies, such as Edgar Fawcett’s The New King Arthur (1885), Oscar
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Fay Adams’s Post-Laureate Idyls and Other Poems (1886) and, above all, Mark
Twain’s A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889), which formed
something of a coexistent paradigm in American literature. Other versions of the
Matter of Britain followed Tennyson more closely in producing domesticated versions
of the legend, though often with an element of democratisation, as evident in the
retellings o f the legend for children, such as Sidney Lanier’s influential The B oy’s
King Arthur (1880).
Tennyson’s conception of the myth was also evident in the utilisation of the
myth as moral pedagogy by William Forbush in his proto-Scouting movement, the
Knights of the Round Table. For Forbush and other American moralists the moral
dangers that beset adolescents could be countered by an adherence to the rules of the
nineteenth century’s conception of chivalry. And, as if to emphasise the link between
Tennyson and his hierarchal organisation, not only was the Idylls required reading
matter for all youths within Forbush’s movement but a boy could only progress
through the various hierarchies of the organisation (Page, Esquire, Knight) through
the recitation of large parts of the Idylls
.97
As an instance o f transatlantic re
transmission, when Robert Baden Powell founded the British Scouting movement, he
modelled them largely on Forbush’s knights and also urged his Scouts to read stories
of chivalry, and the movement even commissioned a film that demonstrated the link
98
between Scouts and Arthur’s knights called Knights o f the Square Table (1917).
Such was the power of the poetry, the success of its publication and the
importance of its sanctioning by the state (through Tennyson’s Laureateship and the
poems’ associations with the monarchy) that those poets and writers who did not find
their world-view within Tennyson’s paradigm - among them Celticists, radicals and
socialists - were either incorporated into the myth or else were forced to abandon
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their efforts to write Arthurian literature. William Morris, for instance, produced a
series of Arthurian poems between 1855 and 1858, which owed a debt o f influence to
Tennyson’s ‘The Lady o f Shalott’ and the 1842 poem s." Modem criticism has tended
to concentrate on the more radical features of Morris’s poetry, emphasising ‘The
Defence of Guinevere’, with its ‘extraordinarily modem [...] attitude to adultery’ and
its attempt to ‘radically exploit’ the figure of Arthur ‘as upholder o f establishment
values.’100 Yet Morris’s radical/conservative tendencies in respect o f the Arthurian
legend fluctuated continually. Although ‘Guinevere’ does present a defence of the
queen’s adultery through richly textured images and emotions, another poem in the
1858 collection, ‘Arthur’s Tomb’, partly inspired by Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s painting
of the same title (fig.l), adopts a far more conventional (and Tennysonian) attitude,
with Guinevere lamenting her role in the destruction of the kingdom and reviling
Lancelot for his part in Arthur’s death.* The inability of Morris to reconcile his darker
view of the medieval with the romantic idealism that he often displayed led him to
abandon his planned epic on the Matter of Britain. What was also probably crucial to
this decision was Tennyson’s obvious success in producing such a work. Morris did
not, of course, share the same authoritarian political impulses that the Poet Laureate
possessed and the double repellence of a narrative about medieval aristocrats and its
embourgeoisement in the Idylls forced Morris to look toward the Norse myths in
search of inspiration.
Algernon Swinburne has often been perceived as the antithesis of Tennyson,
his Tristram ofLyonesse (1882) the poetic subversion of the Idylls.101 Personal
correspondence certainly displays Swinburne’s hostility to Tennyson and his
treatment o f the story in ‘The Last Tournament’, which he saw as ‘degraded and
* However, ‘Arthur’s Tomb’ was published in the year Tennyson finished ‘Guinevere’, the latter text
not being published until the following year (1859). Neither poem seems to have influenced the other,
rather Morris and Tennyson were working on the same story with a similar method.
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