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Simmons’s illustrated edition of the Morte Darthur, with its artwork by Aubrey
Beardsley (1893).*"4
This effect can be witnessed more generally. Since the accession of Henry VII
to the throne of England, representations of the Arthurian legend had been
predominantly celebratory - whether in pageants, masques, histories or literature.
Even in the early years o f the Romantic period, filled as it was with burlesque satire,
Arthur was rarely seen in a less than exuberant guise. But after Tennyson, the story
became firmly fixed in the tragic genre, with Arthurian poetry, drama and visual art
all preoccupied concerned with Arthur’s death, the destruction of the kingdom and the
ruination of an entire social system. This apocalyptic trend grew throughout the period
after Tennyson’s death in 1892 and culminated in the Arthurian literature of the Great
War.
Arthurian literary production after Tennyson (1892-1914)
If Arthurian literature produced in Tennyson’s lifetime was greatly influenced by the
Idylls, the years immediately following the poet’s death in October 1892 witnessed
the total domination o f the Tennysonian paradigm. Barely an Arthurian poem was
produced in Britain which veered away from the Idylls’ domestic, tragic and moral
interpretation, while its narrative and themes continued to be replicated in prose,
drama, art galleries and architecture.
* Compare, for instance, Rossetti’s famous watercolour, King Arthur’s Tomb (fig. 1; 1854) and The
Last Sleep o f Arthur in Avalon by Edward Burne-Jones (fig 2; 1881-98). Both ostensibly narrate the
same event: the mourning o f Arthur, or an event that takes place after his death. The earlier painting’s
focus, however, is clearly not on Arthur, who is entombed beneath the lovers, Lancelot and Guinevere.
The drama o f the piece is centred upon them, with Lancelot crowding the upper section of the painting
in his attempt to gain a kiss from a reluctant Guinevere. By contrast, it is the tragedy of Arthur’s death
that is being emphasised in Burne-Jones’s work (and in the paintings of many other artists from the
1880s onward). There is no drama surrounding the king’s dead body, which is laid out in a stately
manner. Instead, the female figures circle his body, framing the audience’s eye around the dead king.
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Scholarship, too, was essentially Tennysonian in approach. The Idylls formed
something of an academic industry in the late nineteenth century. It was the subject of
numerous monographs, such as those by Henry Elsdale (1878), Albert Hamann (1887)
and Richard Jones (1895).115 The earliest scholarly editions of the Idylls were made
by George Campbell Macaulay in 1892;116 while M.W. MacCallum (1894) and S.
Humphrey Gurteen (1895) published book-length studies which presented the Idylls
as the pinnacle o f Arthurian literary achievement - a sentiment repeated in many later
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studies of the legend.
Even when scholars looked on the older literary tradition -
especially Malory - they did so through Tennyson’s distorting lens.
In the Romantic revival, Robert Southey had perceived Malory’s work to be a
cobbled-together miscellany o f superior French romances. It was a view still held by
non-English editors in the late-nineteenth century, such as Malory’s great German
editor, H. Oskar Sommer, who wrote of it in 1891:
[TJruth demands that we should not rate him too highly. To put it mildly, his
work is very unequal - sometimes he excels, but often he falls beneath, oftener
still, he servilely reproduced his originals. Nor can his selections of material
118
be unreservedly praised.
Yet for English scholars, post-Idylls, the Morte Darthur became a work of ‘epic unity
and harmony’, as Edward Strachey put it in 1891.119 In 1912 George Saintsbury wrote
of Malory: ‘that he, and only he in any language, makes of this vast assemblage of
17 n
stories one story, and one book’.
Whereas earlier writers understood it as
essentially a foreign story, created by the ancestors of the modem Welsh and
improved by the French romancers, the Victorians saw the Morte as ‘our English
epic.’121 In 1897 Saintsbury claimed that only Malory’s ‘English genius’ was able to
synthesise the heterogeneous aspects of the Matter of Britain: ‘Classical rhetoric,
French gallantry, Saxon religiosity and intense realisation of the other world, Oriental
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extravagance to some extent, the “Celtic vague”’.122 While Malory did certainly
Anglicise French romances, these scholars were not so much commenting on the
Morte as constructing it as an English epic in the manner of Tennyson’s Idylls. They
were imbuing the literary qualities and cultural meanings of Tennyson’s Victorian
Idylls into Malory’s fifteenth-century Morte. As part of a historical impulse, they were
attempting to locate the bourgeois ideology of Tennyson’s domesticated epic as
emerging from England’s cultural past.*
Creative literary production, meanwhile, can be seen to flow in three distinct
courses after Tennyson’s death. First there was the merely derivative: poems that
strove to replicate the Idylls' version of the legend, which made few alterations to the
stylistic, narrative or thematic structure of the Tennysonian paradigm. Second, there
were those works which attempted to extend this paradigm into new genres. There
was a surge in Arthurian drama in the mid-1890s, much o f which sought to reproduce
the Idylls on stage. The plays were almost exclusively tragic and came replete with
poignant death scenes and mourning Bediveres. Third, there was the non-/c/y//s-based
Arthuriana. A large part o f this corpus was concerned with Galahad, as derived from
Tennyson’s ‘Sir Galahad’ (1842), rather than the later ‘The Holy Grail’ (1868) - this
body of literature is dealt with in the following chapter. From the middle of the
Edwardian period there was also an increased interest in tales ancillary to the
Arthurian core story. Particularly prominent were reworkings of the Tristram and
Iseult narrative in both drama and poetry, but writers were also drawn to tales of
Launfal, Parsifal, and Uther and Igraine. And while the increased attention paid to
non-Idylls Arthuriana suggested that writers were attempting to break free from
Tennyson’s influence, Arthurian and ancillary literature remained domestic, often
* In addition, the moralised adaptations o f the Morte by J.T. Knowles and Sidney Lanier, as well as
academic abridgements by Edward Strachey and his predecessors, certainly assisted in domesticating
Malory’s text - again making it more in line with Tennyson’s epic.
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