Lesson one

ASSIGNMENTS

I. Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. What was P. L. Kapitsa? 2. What family did he come from? 3. Who were Kapitsa's teachers? 4. When did he go to London? 5. What laboratory did Kapitsa study and work at? 6. Why was Rutherford satisfied with Kapitsa's achievements? 7. What kind of experiments did Kapitsa carry out? 8. When did Kapitsa present his doctoral thesis? 9. What physics law bears the name of Kapitsa? 10. When was Kapitsa awarded the Nobel Prize, in physics?

Make a plan and render the text.
LESSON TWO

READING EXERCISES

1. Practice connected reading:

a great number of facts, were discovered, purely practical, could not explain, the material world, life of contemporary society, the chemical transformation of matter, an extremely useful science, their own structure, have been amazingly great, the world's best polymers, much more durable, bodies for motor cars, the main source of energy, will be used, the place and the role, a living organism, carriers of hereditary characters, new substances and microorganisms, unlimited sources of food, the future of mankind.

TEXT A. CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN MODERN LIFE

Everybody knows that chemistry with its today's possibilities is a young science. But its history began several thousand years ago. A great number of facts, which are still useful in modern chemistry, were discovered in ancient Greece, Rome and especially Egypt. But that knowledge was purely practical. They could not explain many things, which they were observing in the material world. They prepared medicines from plants but could not tell what elements they consisted of.

Today, chemistry is revolutionizing the material conditions of life of contemporary society. Its impact on the development of production is accounted for by the fact that many new technological methods are based on the chemical transformation of matter, the use of catalysis, synthetic materials and other achievements of chemistry and chemical industry. Those methods as a rule promote the growth of output and improve its quality, allow a more intensive use of equipment and cut costs on material and labour.

Everybody knows that chemistry is an extremely useful thing. We are aware of the fact that none of the key industries can develop without chemistry. This applies to machine-building, rocketry, agriculture, light and building industry, medicine, national defence, etc. There are other sciences (biochemistry, molecular biology, geochemistry, astrochemistry, etc.) which have been considerably affected by the progress of chemistry.

We all realize that the successes of contemporary chemistry have been amazingly great. Take, for instance, the chemistry of polymers. Scientists, who are working jointly with the chemical brunches of industry, have created excellent polymers as far as durability and thermal stability are concerned. In our everyday life we are using beautiful fabrics and other materials which can now be made “to order” out of polymers obtained from natural gas, coal, shale, wood or oil. They are much more durable, cheaper, and of considerably better quality. Polymer substances are used in making bolts, screws, bodies for motor cars and motor boats, skis, tanks, belts, springs, bearings, blood vessels and joints, and a lot of other quite improbable things. We also know that almost all detergents, fertilizers, lubricants, fuels, antifreezes, pesticides, cosmetics, solid-state devices, energy- converters (magnets, lasers) and thousands of other products are constructed wholly or in part of synthetics.

In the not too distant future, when the atom, the Sun, the heart of the Earth, and the tides become the main sources of energy, the great quantities of coal, oil, gas, shales and wood, which are extracted and burned up all over the world every year, will be used to make consumer goods.

Today we are witnessing the development of a new scientific and technical branch- biochemical technology. The chemists-researches have already succeeded in determining the place and the role of each atom in a complex bioorganic compound. We are also reading quite frequently about the scientists who can retrace and organize the processes in a living organism and change hereditary properties by introducing artificially created carriers of hereditary characters. The combination of biological or microbiological processes with those of direct chemical synthesis help obtain new substances or microorganisms. This also will provide humanity with unlimited sources of food, medicines, fodder, many types of highly valuable raw materials, etc.

We are sure that there will be many new discoveries in chemistry. They will create new opportunities in the future of mankind.

VOCABULARY NOTES

1. is accounted for (by the fact that…) - пояснюється (тим фактом, що)

2. to be aware of - знати, усвідомлювати

3. to work jointly - працювати спільно

4. all over the world - в усьому світі

5. consumer goods - споживчі товари

6. to provide (smb.) with (smth.) - забезпечувати кого-н. чим- н.

7. rates of growth - темпи зрорстання

8. raw materials - сировина

9. hereditary properties - спадкові властивості (якості, риси).

EXERCISES

I. Make nouns with the meaning “profession”, “a person concerned with”, “a person skilled in a certain field” by adding appropriate suffixes to the following nouns:

Chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, philology, music, science, metallurgy, philosophy, astronomy, history, economy, electricity, ecology.

II. Read the following international words and give their Ukrainian equivalents:

Stability, modern, intensive, natural, distant, technology, combination, condition, medicine.

III. Write down and read aloud the plural form of the following nouns:

Chemistry, society, technology, industry, quality, body, energy, quantity, opportunity.

IV. Choose English equivalents of the following Ukrainian words:

Рослина to discover

Властивість to observe

Зростання to improve

Відкривати plant

Спостерігати grows

Кількість development

Сполука quantity

Вдосконалювати compound

Розвиток property

V. Arrange the following words in pairs according to:

a) similar meaning: main, rapid, influence, modern, principal, outstanding, quick, obtain, impact, remarkable, amazingly, also, get, contemporary, extremely, too;

b) opposite meaning: cheap, limited, near, modern, unlimited, expensive, natural, distant, ancient, artificial.

VI. Translate the following sentences using participles where possible:

1. Під час горіння кисень сполучається з різними речовинами, виділяючи енергію. 2. Досліди, які проводяться в нашій лабораторії, пов’язані з дослідженням каталізаторів у промислових процесах. 3. Знижуючи температуру, ми сповільнюємо хімічну реакцію. 4. Каталізатори, які використовуються в цій реакції, прискорюють хімічні зміни. 5. Пояснивши суть даної хімічної реакції, хімік приступив до досліду. 6. Успіхи, досягнуті у розвитку хімічної промисловості, значно підвищують добробут людей.

VII. Insert this, that, these, those or it and translate the sentences:

1. … terms are no longer associated with the origins of the substances. 2. … phenomenon is not unknown in organic chemistry. 3. If … two gases are mixed at high temperatures, a great amount of … chemical substance is produced. 4. … substances is far from ordinary and processes a lot of highly interesting properties. 5. M.V. Lomonosov made brilliant discoveries at … time. 6. Since … time science and technology have made a great progress.

VIII. Substitute that or these for the repeated noun:

1. Natural rubber is of higher quality than rubber produced artificially. 2. The chemists noticed the differences between substances derived from living matter and substances derived from materials. 3. Among the organic compounds the compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon, the so- called hydrocarbons, are the least reactive. 4. Physical changes are the changes, which affect the state or condition of matter without changing its composition. 5. At temperatures higher than the temperatures mentioned before most substances melt or evaporate.

IX. Define the functions of the Present Participle and the Past Participle and translate the sentences:

1. All objects surrounding us in nature are composed of different substances. 2. Living organisms have some inorganic constituents, such as sodium ions, phosphate ions, calcium ions, carbonate ions, etc., and solid compounds composed of some of these constituents. 3. The particles called molecules cannot be divided without changing the nature of the substance. 4. Being a good conductor, copper is widely used in industry. 5. A molecule is a compound consisting of two or more atoms. 6. Compounds derived from living matter are called organic compounds. 7. D.I. Mendeleyev arranged the elements in a table called the periodic table.

X. Explain the grammatical meaning of the words in bold type and translate the text into Ukrainian:
CATALYST OF PROGRESS

Speaking of industries, which form the backbone of an advanced economy, one must name the chemical industry along with mechanical engineering, metalmaking, and the power industry. The chemical industry and the petrochemical industry are the biggest consumers of power, mineral raw materials, machines, instruments and other products turned out by nearly all the extractive and processing industries. At the same time, the development of literally every sector of the national economy depends, in varying degrees, on the chemical industry.

The chemical industry helps to accomplish many key tasks

facing the economy.

XI. Write out of the text and translate into Ukrainian the sentences in Continuous Tense forms.
XII. Determine the subordinate clauses in the following complex sentences and translate them into Ukrainian:

1. Ancient scientists could not explain many things, which they observed in the material world. 2. Chemists believe that living organisms gathered some important minerals from water during past geological areas and deposited them. 3. A chemical element is a substance that cannot by any ordinary means be separated into two or more different substances. 4. Water, salt, sugar, etc. are chemical compounds, which are produced by a chemical combinatior of two or more atoms. 5. Zinc, whose strong tendency is to loose electrons, is the cheapest metal. 6. The volume of a gas is determined by the volume of the vessel, which contains it.

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English using words and expressions from the text:

1. Сучасна хімія зробила величезний крок уперед порівняно з хімією XIX століття. 2. Величезний вклад у розвиток світової хімії внесли такі вчені, як Лавуазьє, Гей-Люссак, Арреніус, Бутлеров і багато інших. 3. Засновником сучасної хімії і, значною мірою, сучасної фізики є Д. І. Менделєєв. 4. Періодична система елементів Менделєєва, опублікована в 1869 році, була найвищим досягненням хімічної науки тієї епохи. 5. Внесок Д. І. Менделєєва в розвиток теоретичної хімії різноманітний і великий. 6. Без хімії неможливо уявити собі життя сучасного суспільства. 7. Хіміки вносять величезний вклад у науково-технічний прогрес.

XIV. Answer the following questions on the text:

1. What is the characteristic feature of the ancient chemistry? 2. What is the role of chemistry in the life of contemporary society? 3. Why is chemistry an extremely useful science? 4. What is the impact of modern chemistry on production? 5. In what branches of industry is chemistry useful? 6. What new scientific and technical branches of chemistry have appeared? 7. What are the tendencies of modern chemistry?

XV. Render the text according to a plan of your own.
TEXT B. THE GREATEST CHEMIST OF THE WORLD

1. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following words:

periodic [‘piqri’Odik] — періодичний, owe [ou] — бути винним, бути зобов'язаним, radio ['reidiou] — радіо, hypothesis [hai’pOTisis] — гіпотеза, cradle ['kreidl] — колиска, nucleus [‘nju:kliqs] — ядро, meteorology [,mi:tjq’rOlqGi] — метеорологія.

2. Words and expressions necessary to comprehend the text:

to place (among) — ставити (серед чого-н.), to predict — передбачати, in honor (of) — на честь, to lay the foundation — закласти основи, to draw attention — привертати увагу, to commemorate — увічнювати, to follow one's footsteps — йти чиїмись слідами, to deal with — мати справу (з), selfless — безкорисливий, to devote oneself (to) — присвятити себе чому-н., seed — насіння, to sprout — пускати паростки, rearing—виховання.

TEXT

The name of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev is inseparably associated in everyone's mind with one the fundamental scientific laws — the Law of periodicity of chemical elements and the Periodic System based on this law.

The Periodic System of chemical elements that was published by D. I. Mendeleyev in 1869 has been rightfully placed among the greatest history-making contributions to the study of nature. It allowed the existence of yet undiscovered elements to be predicted in advance. Many outstanding researchers owe to it, to a considerable degree, the ideas of their experiments, calculations, hypotheses and theories. Take the English scientists Frederick Soddy and Henry Moseley, for instance, who found the regularities of radioactive transformations. Or the New Zealander Ernest Rutherford and the Dane Niels Bohr, who "designed" the famous planetary model of the atom. Or the German Otto Hahn, who discovered the fission of the uranium nucleus. Or the American Glenn Seaborg who led a group of researchers that obtained, in laboratory conditions, a number of elements, including mendelevium.

Mendelevium, one of the transuranium elements (No. 101), which had been artificially produced, was named in honor of the greatest Russian scientist, as Seaborg himself stressed, not only because Mendeleyev laid the foundation of the modern science of atoms, but also because he drew a special attention to uranium (No. 92), which at the time had closed his periodic table. The once "final" uranium was followed by a long train of transuraniums.

The Nuclear Research Institute in Dubna (not far from Moscow) has a laboratory, which has become the cradle of many transuraniums. They include joliotium (No. 102), rutherfordium (No. 103), kurchatovium (No. 104), and nielsbohrium (No. 105), names by which the scientists commemorated the great physicists, from Rutherford and Bohr to Frederick Joliot-Curie and Igor Kurchatov.

"The greatest chemist of the world" — this is Mendeleyev's fame among the people following in his footsteps. Yes, he, the founder of modern chemistry and, to a large degree, of modern physics, considered physical chemistry his main subject, while he successfully dealt with problems in very diverse areas, from mathematics and astronomy to meteorology, from philosophy to economics, from technology to art.

Quite interesting are Mendeleyev’s notes on “three services tо the Motherland". He placed work of an explorer of nature as the foremost task. He selflessly devoted himself to it.

Mendeleyev also devoted much of his efforts to teaching, to thе rearing of a new scientific generation, to the spread of knowledge and to the improvement of the educational system. Finally, the third most important task in Mendeleyev's life was his contributing as best he could to the economic, primarily industrial, progress of Russia. He concentrated much of his attention on the deep processing. He laid the foundation of petrochemistry.

These are only a few aspects of his varied activities.
ASSIGNMENTS___I._Read_the_text_and_carry_out_the_following_assignments'>ASSIGNMENTS

I. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:

a) Read and give Ukrainian equivalents of the following internationalisms: periodic, contribution, hypothesis.

b) Which sentence is taken from the text unchanged:

1. Mendeleyev also devoted much of his efforts to teaching.

2. Mendelevium, one of the transuranium elements (No. 101), was named in honor of the great Russian scientist.

3."The greatest chemist of the world" — this is Mendedleyev's fame among the people following in his footsteps.

4. Mendeleyev's notes on "three services to the Motherland" are quite interesting.
II. Name scientists who owe their ideas to Mendeleyev's law : periodicity of chemical elements.
III. Explain "the planetary model of the atom".
IV. Express the main idea of the text in one sentence.
TEXT C. THE ATOMIC THEORY

1. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following words:

process, particle, recognizable, molecule, solution, fluorescent, metre, progress, adequate, electron, proton, roughly, neutral, various, nuclides, isotope, sample, protium, deuterium, tritium, ratio.

2. Read and memorize:

tо subdivide — підрозділяти, to grind (into powder) — розтерти (в порошок), solution — розчин, to obtain an image-отримати зображення, to arrange-влаштовувати, formula — формула, to perform experiments — проводити експерименти, equal — рівний, stable — стійкий, quarter — чверть, to separate — відділяти, розділяти, compounds — сполуки, ratio — відношення, пропорція, fluorescent screen — флуоресцентний екран.

TEXT

If we divide an element into small parts and then subdivide these parts into still smaller ones, we shall reach a stage at the end when it will be impossible to continue this process of division. The smallest particle obtained will be the atom.

A grain of sand can be broken into smaller pieces, then ground into powder, and still the substance will be recognized as sand by its properties. If the process is continued far enough, the simplest particle recognizable as sand will be obtained: a molecule. A molecule of sand can be broken down into two simpler substances, the elements silicon and oxygen. The molecule of sand consists of three atoms, one of silicon and two of oxygen.

Molecules and atoms are very small particles. With very powerful microscopes it is now possible to obtain an image on a fluorescent screen or on a photographic plate which shows how these particles are arranged. The diameter of an atom of hydrogen (the simplest element) is about one ten thousand millionth of a metre. Water is a compound consisting of hydrogen and oxygen and has twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms in a molecule: thus we write its formula as H₂O. If a drop of water (0.05 cm³) were magnified up to the size of the earth, then each molecule of water would be nearly as big as a football.

However, the atom is not the limit of division. As science progressed, more and more experiments were performed which the theory could not explain adequately. At the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century some important discoveries were made which studied the existence of the electron and the proton. And at last, in 1932, the neutron was first discovered and described. These three subatomic particles are very important and their properties are studied by scientists.

The proton and the neutron have roughly the same mass, i. e. that of a hydrogen atom, but the electron is much lighter. The proton and the electron have equal and opposite electrical charges, that of the proton is positive whereas the neutron has no charge.

The neutrons and protons in an atom are in the central nucleus and this is therefore positively charged. The atomic number of an atom of an element is the number of positive charges on the nucleus, i. e. the number of protons. It is the most important property of an element. The nucleus has practically all the mass of an atom but it is very small, being about a thousand million millionth of a metre across. The electrons are in various energy levels (orbits) around the nucleus. In an atom of an element there are as many electrons as protons and hence as a whole the atom is neutral.

There are about 280 stable nuclides, combinations of neutrons and protons, with electrons to balance the nuclear charge. Atoms of the same element differing in the neutron content of their nuclei, and therefore in their masses, are called isotopes. Isotopes are thus nuclides belonging to the same element. Isotopes are present in constant proportions in most samples of elements, hence the average relative atomic mass is constant.

Hydrogen consists mostly of the isotope, having just one proton in the nucleus, together with a small proportion of a second isotope having one proton and one neutron in the nucleus, and a very small proportion of a third isotope having one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus. Three quarters of the elements consist of several isotopes but only in the case of hydrogen they have separate names and symbols: the first isotope is protium ("hydrogen"), the second is deuterium ("heavy hydrogen") and the third, a radioactive one, is tritium.

In many compounds, particularly those of carbon, the ratio of the numbers of atoms that have combined, is not simple. Many of these compounds have important electrical properties as semiconductor devices, e. g. transistors and thermistors.

ASSIGNMENTS

I. Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. What does the division of an element lead to? 2. What do we call the smallest particle of matter? 3. How many atoms does the molecule of sand consist of? 4. What is the diameter of an atom of hydrogen? 5. Is the atom the smallest particle of matter? 6. When was the neutron discovered? 7. What are the characteristics of the proton, the electron and the neutron? 8. Which is the most important property of an element? 9. How many stable nuclides are there? 10. Which compounds have important electrical properties?

II. Make a plan of the text and render its contents in English or Ukrainian.
LESSON THREE
READING EXERCISES

1. Memorize the spelling and pronunciation of the following words:

intense [in’tens] — інтенсивний, quantum [‘kwOntqm] —квант, thermal [‘TWmql] — термічний, тепловий, equilibrium [,i:kwi’libriqm] — рівновага, diameter [dai’xmitq] —діаметр, mankind [mxn’kaind] — людство, mobile —[‘moubail]— рухомий, oscillate [‘O:sileit] — рухатися, вібрувати.

2. Practise connected reading:

the century of lasers, miracle-making beam, the use of lasers, quite possible, making and concentrating light waves, increases the intensity, the laws of quantum mechanics, electromagnetic radiation energy, compressed in space, the most flexible and mobile element, highly pointed and powerful flux of energy.

TEXT A. LASER TECHNOLOGY

The next century may well become the century of lasers. This miracle-making beam is the symbol of the 20th century technology. There is no doubt that the use of lasers will be very widespread in the nearest future. Quite possibly, it will be as widely used as electronic devices are today.

What is laser? It is a device for making and concentrating light waves into a very intense beam. The letters LASER stand for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The light made by a laser is much more intense than ordinary light. With ordinary light all the light waves are of different lengths. With lasers all the light waves are of the same length, and this increases the intensity.

The functioning of lasers is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. The laser is a device in which energy (thermal, chemical or electric) is transformed into electromagnetic radiation energy, a laser beam with maximally low entropy.

The quality of laser energy is determined by the possibility of its high concentration both in space and in time. The laser beam is first compressed in time, i. e. transformed into a short pulse. Then it may be compressed in space focusing it to a fine point with a diameter of the order of a light wave length, thus obtaining energy density which, to date, evens that of a nuclear explosion. Laser energy can also be concentrated within a very narrow spectrum interval. This makes the laser a very fine instrument.

The world's first ruby laser had a dark-red beam. Other lasers were then produced, whose beam oscillated in crystals of a different composition, in semiconductors, gases, and liquids. And the beams were blue, green or invisible-infrared. What they have in common is that the beam is always space-bound and carries a highly pointed and powerful flux of energy.

Laser energy may be transformed practically without loss into many familiar forms of energy.

As each of new kinds of energy was mastered, mankind gained new possibilities for its development. But discovery of the laser signifies something greater than simply mastering a new kind of energy. Wide laser application in production signifies a revolution in the implements of labour — the most flexible and mobile element of the productive forces.