limb damage and TBI. This gap has been bridged by investigating
the nexus of psychiatry and biomedicine as well as their in
fluence
on patient participation and success with rehabilitation. To date,
40 patients with both mild TBI and PTSD have been enrolled
with unexpected
findings discovered. Many subjects self-report
that their symptoms of PTSD (e.g., hyper vigilance) could be
viewed positively and assist some patients with their transition
back into the civilian community.
11
Finally, ongoing research is focused on understanding the aspects
of rehabilitative care that help injured service members develop resil-
ience as they subsequently leave the rehabilitation program and
return to duty or their communities. Early results indicate that
the relationships these patients form with their providers and peer-
visitors have long-lasting effects as they encounter adversities and
challenges once resuming life after injury. Their sense of accom-
plishment during rehabilitation, which they attribute to the knowl-
edge, skills, and motivation given to them by their providers and
peers, continues to be a source of inner strength. In addition,
patients note that their access to high technology, particularly in
prosthetics, not only improves functional abilities but also provides
a sense of symbolic commitment that the military and their nation
support their recovery. Although many patients report being less
physically active in the years after leaving a rehabilitation pro-
gram, they still greatly applaud the robust clinical focus on sports
and athleticism that the rehabilitation program provided. Indi-
viduals note that this focus on high levels of performance adds
tremendously to their successful community reintegration.
12
RESEARCH FOCUS AREA 2: IMPROVEMENTS
TO PAIN MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
This research area focuses on pain management strategies criti-
cal to recovery and quality of life after severe combat injuries.
Drs. Steven Cohen, Jack Tsao and Brad Isaacson lead this area
to assist wounded service members with orthopedic and neuro-
logical pain relief. For the past several years, research efforts
have concentrated on main complications: (1) axial spine pain
(2) phantom limb pain (PLP).
Axial Spine Pain: Lower Back and Neck Pain
Debilitating conditions such as neck and back pain occur more
frequently in individuals with limb amputation and trauma and
have a more pronounced negative impact on an individual
’s
mobility and quality of life. Low back pain (LBP), in particular,
remains a signi
ficant challenge to treat in clinical practice. Several
studies have demonstrated that LBP is the leading cause of injury
in active duty service members and one of the most common rea-
sons for disability worldwide in people under the age of 45.
13,14
By some estimates, the economic costs of treating LBP approach
$100 billion per year in the United States.
15
Similarly, chronic
neck pain is a major cause of disability in the world,
16
with a
12-month prevalence rate between 30 and 50%.
16
–18
Injured ser-
vice members also suffer from these conditions at high rates and
currently there is no
“gold standard” for the treatment of neck pain
and LBP. To address this lack of standardization and potentially
reduce the economic burden of neck pain and LBP for the DoD
and VA, Dr. Cohen has led several double-blinded studies to
determine the ef
ficacy of the current standards of care for LBP.
The purpose of one study was to evaluate the best approach
for treating patients with lumbosacral and cervical radicular pain.
Considerable debate exists as to the bene
fits of epidural steroid
injection (ESI) verses gabapentin prescription.
19
To address these
con
flicting opinions, Dr. Cohen led a multisite prospective-
blinded study to assess whether ESI, conservative treatment,
or combination treatment provided the highest patient satisfac-
tion for treating cervical radicular pain. Data from 169 patients
suggested no signi
ficant differences between these treatment
options, but combination therapy improved outcomes compared
to stand-alone methods.
20
Dr. Cohen
’s findings highlight the
importance of an interdisciplinary approach to management
of pain. These outcomes have implications for treating both
injured service members and the general population.
Phantom Limb Pain
Almost immediately after the loss of a limb, 90 to 95% of all patients
with major limb amputations experience a vivid phantom limb sen-
sation such as warmth, cold, itching, pressure, or sense of position.
21
When the sensations become intense enough to be de
fined as painful,
they are referred to as PLP. PLP occurs in 80 to 90% of individuals
with limb amputation and usually appears immediately following
awakening from anesthesia, though pain onset may be delayed for
up to a few days or weeks in 25% of patients. The presence of PLP
does not seem to correlate with the cause or location of amputation.
22
In most cases, PLP gradually fades with time, particularly with pros-
thetic use; however, a signi
ficant percentage of patients (30–70%)
report having pain that persists for years or decades. Since evidence
indicates that pain continuing for longer than 6 months is the most
dif
ficult to treat,
22,23
better evidence is needed to identify effective
treatment strategies.
The causes of PLP and nonpainful phantom sensation are not
known; however, both peripheral and central processes are impli-
cated.
24
Memories of the limb
’s posture and form before amputation
often survive in the phantom.
25,26
After a period of several weeks, a
patient
’s phantom limb may fade from consciousness and/or disap-
pear completely. However, PLP is remarkably dif
ficult to treat, and
there are several reports of failed drug trials in clinical literature.
23,24
Dr. Jack Tsao leads CRSR
’s PLP research using a combination
of virtual reality-based training, simulators, biological assays, and
advanced neuroimaging to further understand this debilitating condi-
tion. He and his team completed the
first randomized, sham-
controlled prospective trial of mirror therapy for the treatment of
PLP. Mirror therapy functions by having the amputee place a mirror
between the intact and amputated limbs while simultaneously mov-
ing the phantom limb to mimic the movements of the intact limb
viewed in the mirror. Dr. Tsao
’s team is currently performing a func-
tional magnetic resonance imagining study to determine activation
patterns in the brain before and following mirror therapy.
This team has also extended the theory that visual observation is
the key to mirror therapy by demonstrating that bilateral amputees
with PLP may experience pain relief by observing someone else
’s
limbs moving. In a study of 20 bilateral lower limb amputees with
PLP, direct visual observation signi
ficantly reduced PLP in both
limbs, whereas mental visualization methods were not signi
ficant.
27
This inexpensive technique may assist service members with limb
loss reduce their pain thresholds and positively in
fluence their ability
MILITARY MEDICINE, Vol. 181, November/December Supplement 2016
22
Advancing the Rehabilitative Care for Service Members With Complex Trauma