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2
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The Nature of Reading Comprehension
The process of reading has been studied from a cognitive point of view that
led to theories of reading comprehension
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A well-established cognitive theory of
reading comprehension considers reading as an interactive process where words and
phrases are processed in context and not separately (Spiro, Bruce & Brewer, 1980)
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This interactive view of reading focuses on the reader’s effort to integrate textual
information and prior knowledge to extract meaning from text, which means that
input from text is first deciphered and then processed at a cognitive level
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For the purpose of constructing meaning, readers must combine the
information in the text with their existing knowledge, and then through a series of
processes, the text makes it possible for readers to build conceptual knowledge
structures that allow the readers to make meaning (Adams, 1980)
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The text does not
convey meaning by itself, but it merely guides readers and shows them how the
meaning can be built, using previously acquired knowledge (Carrell, 1983), which is
in turn unique to each reader
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This uniqueness could result in individual differences in
text comprehension
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Thus, comprehension could differ regarding each reader’s level
of prior knowledge structures
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Research shows that reading comprehension comprises a set of complex
cognitive skills
.
The cognitive mechanisms of reading consist of two parallel
processes
:
(a) word recognition and (b) the comprehension processes (Perfetti, 1985)
.
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The latter include comprehension processes at the text level (sentences) as well as the
representation of the entire text or passage
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When lexical processes including word
recognition are linked to the comprehension processes, readers could then create a
mental representation for a text to understand its meaning (Perfetti, 1985)
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However, when making meaning, the reader must also infer information that is
not openly indicated in the text, since a great proportion of the knowledge necessary
to comprehend a text entails that the reader makes appropriate inferences to deduce
meaning
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For instance, understanding the sentence ‘ The mother tried to cut the steak
but the knife was dull’ requires that the reader at least draws two inferences
:
The first
is that a steak is cut with a knife, and the second is that the knife should be sharp to
cut the steak
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These two inferences can be implied and understood indirectly, but the
success in their understanding depends on the reader's world knowledge (Perfetti,
1985)
.
The ability to make appropriate inferences while reading is an essential
constituent of text comprehension
.
In summary, research on the process of reading comprehension indicates that
reading is an interactive process where the reader integrates textual features as well as
features of their prior knowledge to build up meaning
.
Both prior knowledge and text
features’ processing play a crucial role in reading comprehension
.
Yet, good readers
must sometimes exert inference efforts to gain insight into knowledge not stated
explicitly in text
.
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The Role of Vocabulary in Reading Comprehension
Research indicates that vocabulary knowledge is a crucial component in
reading comprehension (Anderson & Freebody (1981). In addition, “[there is a] well-
documented association between good vocabulary knowledge and the ability to read
well” (Read, as cited in Flynn, 2007, p. 7). Anderson and Freebody (1981) proposed
three hypotheses to explain why vocabulary knowledge is closely related to reading
comprehension: the instrumentalist, aptitude, and knowledge hypotheses. The
instrumentalist position regards vocabulary as a major factor in comprehension, and
that knowing the meaning of words enables readers to comprehend a text. However,
the instrumentalist position does not offer any clues as to where vocabulary
knowledge comes from. The aptitude hypothesis proposes that individuals who have a
wide vocabulary exhibit better text understanding because they have higher mental
agility. Yet, rich vocabulary alone does not suggest better understanding, but it is
verbal ability, measured by vocabulary tests performance, which actually determines
if understanding will occur. The knowledge hypothesis suggests that a reader’s
background knowledge (culture) is an essential factor for text understanding, and that
a person’s performance on vocabulary tests serves as a mirror of this knowledge. This
hypothesis emphasizes that knowing a word’s meaning very well means knowing
more words related to it, and this broad knowledge is important for text
comprehension.
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For example, a person who knows the meaning of the word ‘home page’ is
likely to know a lot of words about computing. This knowledge would necessarily
enable the person to understand instructions in a manual which do not contain the
word ‘home page’, such as “Click on the ‘Edit’ drop-down menu in your browser,
choose a function, and then select an option from the dialog box”
Whereas the Instrumentalist hypothesis stresses individual word meanings as
an important factor in performance in reading comprehension, the Aptitude and
Knowledge hypotheses emphasize that the more word meanings readers know and the
more background knowledge they have, the better they are at reading comprehension.
Bearing in mind Anderson and Freebody’s (1981) Aptitude hypothesis which
suggested that individuals should have a wide vocabulary to read well, two questions
of interest in this regard are: What percentage of a text’s vocabulary should a reader
know to understand the text well? And how many words must they possess to be able
to read and comprehend an L2 text adequately?
In her study investigating the relationship between vocabulary size and the
comprehension of academic texts, Laufer (1992) found that adequate comprehension
in L2 reading entails knowing 95% of the text words, and to achieve this level of
lexical coverage the reader must know at least 3,000 word families. Knowing a word
family means that knowing the word ‘ conclude’, for instance, necessarily implies
knowing ‘ conclusion’, ‘conclusive’, ‘concluding’, ‘ conclusively’ and their inflected
forms. Laufer pointed that knowing 3,000 word families is the vocabulary threshold
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