Proverbial poetry: its settings and syntax
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and positions which may have shaped Proverbs. Class-Ethic?
roles in the intelligentsia of Israel and were, in fact, responsible for the collecting and transmitting of proverbs, often under the direction of the king (Prov 22:17; 25:1). This leads to the question of whether or not Proverbs presents an aristocratic ethic directed strictly to young men on their way up the political ladder. This class ethic Sitz im Leben is connected with the scribes and wise men, who would normally form part of the group of courtiers whose locus of existence centered on the royal court. Kovacs gives a concise definition of what is meant by a class ethic (Standesethik): "the ethos of a specific social group--a system of values and a corresponding perspective on the world founded in that group and common to it." It implies a certain closure to the world at large and a strict addressing of the issues pertinent to one's own group.1 Humphreys and Gordis identify the audience of Proverbs as the upper-class landowners and ____________________ 1Kovacs, "Class-Ethic in Proverbs?" p. 176. Cf. Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints," pp. 85, 392, 411.
court.1 The evidence for the notion that Proverbs reflects an upper-class ethic comes largely from the commonly shared wisdom ethos. Gordis notes that ancient Near Eastern wisdom generally was for young princes and scribes who served in the royal court.2 Gemser demonstrates a similar class-ethic in 'Onchesheshonqy.3 Bryce also notes that, of nine "better" proverbs in Amenemope, five of them deal with riches and poverty. Similarly, in Proverbs 15-26, about six out of twelve "better" proverbs address issues of finance.4 Gordis is correct in noting that only the wealthy could afford to have their children in school and the fact that the authorship of most proverbs is ____________________
in the Book of Proverbs," in Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien, ed. J. G. Gammie, et al. (New York: Union Theological Seminary, 1978), pp. 177-90; also vid. his fine dissertation, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier," and Robert Gordis, "The Social Background of Wisdom Literature," HUCA 18 (1943-44):77-118. This article, along with Kovacs' article on the class-ethic, are foundational reading for a proper understanding of the setting of Proverbs. 2Gordis, "The Social Background of Wisdom Literature," p. 91. 3B. Gemser, "The Instructions of 'Onchesheshonqy and Biblical Wisdom Literature," VTSup 7 (1960):122. 4Glendon E. Bryce, "'Better'-Proverbs: An Historical and Structural Study," in SBLASP, vol. 12 (1972), p. 347; cf. Robert Chisholm, "Literary Genres and Structures in Proverbs" (Seminar paper, Dallas Theological Seminary, May 1980), p. 24.
upper class milieu.1 Numerous statements in Proverbs reveal an urban aristocratic mentality (Prov 17:26; 18:11, 18; 19:1, 6; 22:7, 16, as well as the king sayings in chaps. 16, and 20-21).2 Proverbs 19:10 records: It is not fitting for a fool to live in luxury-- how much worse for a slave to rule over princes! Wealth is uniformly viewed as good, though one should not avariciously try to grab it if a violation of moral values is necessitated (Prov 10:4, 22; 11:18; 13:18). Poverty is often portrayed as a consequence of laziness (Prov 10:4) or wickedness (Prov 13:21) and is always an undesirable situation (Prov 10:15).3 The condemnation of bribery (Prov 15:27; 17:23; 21:14), the rich temptress (Prov 7:16), and the disparaging view of a servant who rises to power (Prov 30:21-23) all reflect an upper class posture.4 Several have postulated objections to this class ethic approach: (1) the clan/tribal ethos of certain Proverbs suggests an agrarian setting (Prov 10:5); ____________________
Literature," pp. 84-85. 2Humphrey, "The Motif of the Courtier in the Book of Proverbs," p. 182. 3Gordis, "The Social Background of Wisdom Literature," pp. 97-98. 4Ibid., p. 107; Kovacs, "Is There a Class-Ethic in Proverbs?" p. 178. (2) Proverbs addresses universal needs of mankind;1 and (3) the class ethic motif was a later accretion to Israel's early wisdom sayings, which had a much more democratic tendenz than those of Egypt and elsewhere.2 Others would suggest that Proverbs reflects a middle-class ethos.3 Proverbial Court Setting The origins and use of wisdom in the court will be addressed here briefly and their relationship to the king will be discussed somewhat later. von Rad sees the titles found in Proverbs as demonstrative of the court setting of the book (Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1; et al.).4 Humphreys notes that, in the 538 sayings in Proverbs 10-29, only thirty have the courtier as their primary focus; yet, much of the book does canvass matters which are pertinent for a ____________________
Wisdom: Prolegomenon," SAIW, p. 20; Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 23. 2Rylaarsdam, Revelation in Jewish Wisdom Literature, p. 10; W. Baumgartner, "The Wisdom Literature," in The Old Testament and Modern Study, ed. H. H. Rowley (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1951), p. 214.
7; and Heaton, Solomon's New Men, pp. 13, 118. 4von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, p. 15; von Rad, Old Testament Theology, pp. 429-30; Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship," pp. 117-18. court milieu.1 The following have been taken as reflective of a courtier setting: (1) the stressing of the relationship to one's superiors (Prov 23:1);2 (2) the judicial aspect of numerous proverbs (Prov 16:10; 17:9, 15, 18);3 (3) the suggestions on how to curry the king's favor (Prov 14:35; 16:13; 22:11; 25:6-7);4 (4) the importance of counselors (Prov 11:14; 24:6); and (5) the theme of the faithful messenger (Prov 10:26; 13:17).5 One must be careful not to confuse a proverb's imagery, which may be rural or agricultural, with its message, which may be fitting for aristocratic concerns. It is not being suggested that Proverbs came exclusively from a court setting, as it obviously does not solely reflect a court ethos.6 Rather, it is thought that ____________________
Old Testament," p. 160. 2Gordis, "The Social Background of Wisdom Literature," p. 92. 3Nel, The Structure and Ethos, p. 80. 4Beaucamp, Man's Destiny in the Books ofWisdom, p. 5.
5Gordis, "The Social Background of Wisdom Literature," p. 92; Humphreys, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Book of Proverbs," p. 181; A. D. Crown, "Messengers and Scribes: the and in the Old Testament," VT 24.3 (July 1974):366-70; Beaucamp, Man's
Mettinger, Solomonic State Officials, pp. 52-62. 6Humphrey, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Book of Proverbs," p. 187. R. E. Clements, review of one component of the multiplex setting, from which the proverbial material was generated, was from and to the aristocratic element of society. Thus, court setting is highly favored due to the clear statements of the text itself (Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).
training. Within the guilds, training often was the passing on of skills within the "family," and, at the royal court, schools were often the means whereby the needed skills were acquired. The first extant literary source making reference to a school in Egypt is from the Tenth dynasty. Williams suggests that, prior to that time, the training of youths was carried out through apprenticeship programs.1 Brunner suggests that Egyptian education evolved from an apprentice, familial setting to a school setting, which often utilized familial terms ("father" and "son").2 A ____________________
(1972):185; Fox, "Aspects of the Religion of the Book of Proverbs," p. 60; and Whybray, The Intellectual Tradition, p. 2.
1Williams, "Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt," p. 215. Halvorsen ("Scribes and Scribal Schools," pp. 81-92) gives a nice synopsis of the relevant material. Cf. also Olivier, "Schools and Wisdom Literature," p. 55. 2Hellmut Brunner, Altagyptische Erziehung, palace school existing in the twelfth dynasty is known from the "Instruction of Duauf."1 It was only after the New Kingdom that education developed much outside of the palace confines. As the school moved to an institutional setting, it became less aristocratic. The house of life in Egypt seems to have been a scholarly resort where sacred books, letters, magic and medicine literature, inscriptions, and the "annals of the gods" were generated and transcribed. It was a scriptorium closely connected with the temple, which often housed a library.2 Education in the Egyptian schools was often by sing-song recitation and the memorization of texts.3 A father's description to his son of the happy lot in life of the scribe in life should be contrasted to what the son actually found in school. Williams has collected numerous rather sadistically humorous texts, which detail ____________________ (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1957), pp. 10-32. This is a classic source of material on the Egyptian schools. Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints," p. 251. 1Pritchard, ANET, pp. 432-34. 2Alan H. Gardiner, "The House of Life," JEA 24 (1938):175-78. Mettinger (Solomonic State Officials, p. 141), on the other hand, views it as a university-type of atmosphere. Cf. Halvorsen, "Scribes and Scribal Schools," p. 92.
216, 219; Erman, The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 77. the plight of the Egyptian student. Papyrus Anastasis, for example, records the following admonition and proverbial quotation: Persevere in your daily tasks, and then you will achieve mastery over them. Do not pass a day lazy, or else you will be beaten; a lad's ear is actually on his back, and he listens when he is beaten. . . . Write with your hand, read with your mouth, and seek advice. Do not tire. Do not spend a day in laziness, or woe to your limbs! Penetrate the counsels of your teacher and listen to his instructions. Be a scribe.1 The Demotic text of 'Onchesheshonqy shows the democratization of learning as a man's son is admonished to "learn to write, to plough, to fowl. . . ."2 The materials copied in the schools were the instruction texts (which stressed proper manners and appropriate speech), the "Satire on the Trades," the adventurous "Tale of Sinuhe," and "Kemyt" ("completion," which was a series of idioms and formulae used for a millennium in the Egyptian schools).3 The training lasted for four years.4 ____________________
p. 218.
2Gemser, "The Instructions of 'Onchsheshonqy," p. 116.
3Williams, "Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt," p. 217; Glendon E. Bryce, "Another Wisdom 'Book' in Proverbs," JBL 91.2 (1972):147; also Bryce, A Legacy of Wisdom, p. 138; and Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 32. 4Williams, "Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt," p. 216.
Mesopotamian Schools In Mesopotamia, the school was called the edubba (Sumerian, meaning "tablet house") or the bit tuppi (Akkadian). School materials at Shuruppak have been found dating to 2500 B.C. and at Erech as early as 3000 B.C.1 Other sites, such as Uruk, Ur, Eshnunna, Sippar, Nippur, Mari, and even as far west as Ugarit, have yielded school materials.2 The schools have been found in three locations: (1) the royal palace;3 (2) the temple;4 and (3) private homes. This final location is suggested by the finding of numerous school texts in individual dwellings.5 There also seems to have been an institution ____________________ 1Kramer, Sumerians, p. 229. For a handy survey of materials, vid. Halvorsen, "Scribes and Scribal Schools," pp. 11-76.
Babylonian Eduba," pp. 176-78; and Khanjian, "Wisdom in Ugarit," pp. 126, 136.
appendages of the temple (Samuel N. Kramer, "The Sumerian School: A Pre-Greek System of Education," in Studies
Washington University, 1951], p. 241). However, he denies that it was connected to the cult (S. N. Kramer, "Sumerian Literature, A General Survey," in The Bible and the Ancient Near East. Essays in Honor of William Foxwell Albright, ed. G. E. Wright [reprint, Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1961], p. 253). Landsberger also portrays most priests as illiterate and Priesterweisheit as a misconception (Landsberger, "Scribal Concepts of Education," p. 98).
p. 25. Sjoberg gives a useful survey of the location of of higher learning in the edubba gula, or the bit mumme.1 After the Old Babylonian period, the tablet-house disappeared, thus moving education more into the hands of the private sector.2 Westenholz gives four aims of Sumerian education: (1) to provide the student with cuneiform writing skills; (2) to teach the student Sumerian; (3) to develop the ability to write letters and documents; and (4) to become aware of the major works of Akkadian literature.3 Landsberger notes the stress on memory in the Mesopotamian schools for accomplishing these goals:
dictation was absent. Instead the common practice was that the 'older brother' or preceptor would write down 25 lines or so on a clay tablet. Then, on the reverse of the same tablet, the student was required to write from memory the whole section of the literary series from which the particular composition had been chosen.4 ____________________ the finds in "The Old Babylonian Eduba," pp. 176-77. He also surveys the curriculum.
112; McKane, Prophets and Wise Men, p. 39; and Humphreys, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Old Testament," p. 16.
2Ibid., p. 97. 3Westenholz, "Old Akkadian School Texts," p. 106; cf. Sjoberg, "The Old Babylonian Eduba," p. 160; and Gadd, Teachers and Students in the Oldest Schools, pp. 236-37, who cites a text from Ur stating the purpose of Sumerian education: "to turn the ignorant and illiterate into a man of wisdom and learning." 4Lansberger, "Scribal Concepts of Education," p. 116. The memorization often included long lists of animals, gods, classifications, and vocabularies. Legal texts were also learned.1 The texts copied in the edubba have been linked to wisdom literature.2 Since Halvorsen has developed an overview of the school texts (hymns and prayers, wisdom literature, scientific texts, grammatical lists, omen texts and royal correspondence), comments here will be made only regarding the proverbial material.3 Kramer divides the wisdom material into five categories: proverbs, miniature essays, instructions, Edubba school-life compositions, and disputes.4 The proverbs served as simple models for the students, illustrating patterns of proper and improper behavior, as well as tuning their minds to proverbial literary devices and paradigms.5 The school was headed by the ummia, who was the ____________________
also surveys the curriculum. Cf. Kramer, "The Sumerian School: A Pre-Greek System of Eduation," p. 243.
43-52.
4Samuel N. Kramer, "Sumerian Wisdom Literature: A Preliminary Survey," BASOR 122 (April 1951):28. 5Alster, Studies in Sumerian Proverbs, p. 13; cf. Gordon, Sumerian Proverbs, p. 20. school "father."1 The "big brother" and the student were the other constituents of the school setting.2 "A Failed Examination," is a text in which the teacher severely reprimands his erring student: What have you done, what good came of your sitting here? You are already a ripe man and close to being aged! Like an old ass you are not teachable any more. Like withered grain you have passed the season. How long will you play around? But, it is still not too late! If you study night and day and work all the time modestly and without arrogance, if you listen to your colleagues and teachers, you still can become a scribe! Then you can share the scribal craft which is good fortune for its owner, a good angel leading you, a bright eye, possessed by you, and it is what the palace needs.3 Again, as in Egypt, physical discipline was frequent, administered by the "father" or "big brother."4 Kramer narrates the normal school day of a student as consisting of reading his tablet, eating lunch, writing a new tablet, receiving an assignment, hopefully not being "caned," and returning home to present his work, with delight, to his ____________________
Sumerian Composition Relating to the Education of a Scribe," JAOS 69.4 (1949):205; and Philip Nel, "The Concept of 'Father' in the Wisdom Literature of the Ancient Near East," Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 5 (1977):60.
p. 33.
3Landsberger, "Scribal Concepts of Education," p. 100.
4Gadd, Teachers and Students in the Oldest Schools, p. 20; Khanjian, "Wisdom in Ugarit," p. 53. father.1 Thus, the existence of a school structure has been observed in Egypt and in Mesopotamia, dating back to the earliest periods of writing. This allows for the inference of the existence of a similar phenomenon in Israel. The internal didactic tone of the book of Proverbs would naturally fit a school setting if such an institution can be found in Israel. Schools in Israel? The existence of a school in Israel has been assumed by many scholars on the basis of Egyptian and/or Mesopotamian analogies.2 No direct evidence has been found as yet, although there are materials which strongly point in the direction of an Israelite school. The following evidences favor an Israelite school: (1) Albright's tablet found at Shechem, from a teacher at Megiddo asking to be paid for services rendered (1400 ____________________
Relating to the Education of a Scribe," p. 199. 2Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, p. 327; H. J. Hermisson, Studien zur israelitischen Spruchweisheit, pp. 96-98; Scott, The Way of Wisdom, p. 107; Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints," p. 223; Jensen, The Use of tora by Isaiah, p. 35; Mowinckel, "Psalms and Wisdom," p. 206; Ernest Sellin, Introduction to the Old Testament, revised and rewritten by Georg Fohrer (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1968), p. 481; Olivier, "Schools and Wisdom Literature," pp. 57-59; and W. Richter,
Albright takes as suggesting the existence of a Canaanite school as early as the eighteenth century B.C.;2 (3) the Yüklə 6,58 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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