Proverbial poetry: its settings and syntax
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Sumerian Proverbs, pp. 16, 110. 6Fontaine, "The Use of the Traditional Saying in the Old Testament," p. 275. gives advice concerning the king's responsibilities in omen-patterned counsels. This points to the king not only as the author, but also as the addressee of wisdom materials in Babylon (1000-700 B.C.).1 The King and Wisdom in Israel With this background of the relationship between the king and wisdom in Egypt and Mesopotamia, it is not odd that Israelite wisdom is also inseparably connected to the kingship, particularly since Israel had called for a king like the other nations (1 Sam 8:5, 20; 10:10).2 This connection is not only to be seen in light of the explicit titles in Proverbs (1:1; 10:1; 25:1), which contain references to Solomon, Hezekiah, and a non-Israelite king who received instruction from his mother (Prov 31:1), but the historical material, as well, highlights the nexus between wisdom and the king. No genre in the canon has been so consistently associated with royalty as the wisdom texts. Other Jewish, non-canonical, wisdom texts explicitly embrace a kingship setting (Wis 6-7), both in terms of authorship and as a topic of concern (Wis 1:1; ____________________ 1Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, pp. 110-15; and Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, pp. 99, 122. So the text states: "If a king does not heed justice, his people will be thrown into chaos, and his land will be devastated." This text's connection of the cult and the king in wisdom is explicit. 2Kalugila, The Wise King, p. 102. Sir 10:1). Humphreys is correct when he notes that ancient Near Eastern materials primarily and originally addressed to the king were taken over and used in much wider circles. Often they would be copied diligently in the schools.1 Thus, it is not strange that a similar phenomenon is observed in Israel (Prov 25:1). As seen repeatedly in the prophetic condemnations of the king (cf. Prov 28:16; 29:2, 4, 12),2 there is certainly no confusion in Israelite wisdom concerning the distinction between God and the historical kings. In wisdom materials, the demesne of the king is always under that of Yahweh's authority and rule (Prov 21:1).3 It was by wisdom that kings should reign (Prov 8:13-16). The king may be wise (Prov 20:26) or self-destructively foolish (Prov 31:3); in either case, he, like all men, must adhere to the cosmic principles laid down by Yahweh or suffer the consequences. The king was to maintain the cosmic harmony via his enforcing of the principles of justice by which God had ordered creation. The king was to be the upholder of "righteousness," which he promulgated through teaching and through just and ____________________
Old Testament," p. 166. 2Ibid., p. 152. 3Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints," p. 415.
well-considered decisions.1 The Bible not only associates wisdom with its kings, but also with the royalty of other nations (Isa 19:11). The boast of the king of Tyre takes on its proper connotations when seen in light of Near Eastern parallels of king-wisdom relations. God quotes the king of Tyre's exultant heart as saying (Ezek 28:2-3):
of the seas.' But you are a man and not a god though you think you are as wise as a god. Are you wiser than Daniel? Is no secret hidden from you? By your wisdom and understanding you have gained wealth for yourself . . . .2 Another point of interest is the root mlk, which leads to derivations both in the fields of king and counselor.3 The court structure points again to the importance the king placed on wisdom by surrounding himself not only with scribes, but also with a "rememberer" and a "friend" from whom he could obtain wise counsel.4 ____________________
Kingship," pp. 52, 96. Malchow states his thesis, which is quite compatible with the biblical text and with ancient Near Eastern sources, that "kingship is the setting from which the later wisdom movement proceeded in Israel" (p. 136).
2Bryce, A Legacy of Wisdom, p. 193. 3W. F. Albright, "Notes on Egypto-Semitic Etymology, III," JAOS 47.3 (1927):214; cf. Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship," p. 120. This writer is keenly aware of the semantic root-meaning fallacy. However the connection is an interesting one in light of the other materials discussed. 4Scott, The Way of Wisdom, p. 13. Solomon, the ideal wise king, is viewed as having been endued with divine wisdom (cf. Near Eastern parallels above) as a result of a dream at Gibeon (1 Kgs 3:9-15).1 Prior to Solomon, David was said to have received divine wisdom (2 Sam 14:20) and his role in judging law cases would well manifest one who metes out justice by wise and righteous decisions (2 Sam 12). In the statement of the wise woman of Tekoa, the king's wisdom is compared to that of the angel of Yahweh (2 Sam 14:17, 20). Thus, it is not odd for Micah to parallel king and counselor in a "synonymous" relationship (Mic 4:9). How natural it is, then, for the ideal messianic king to be described as one having the "Spirit of wisdom and of understanding, the Spirit of counsel and of power, the Spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the LORD" (Isa 11:2), and that He should be called the "Wonderful Counsellor" (Isa 9:6).2 Besides the titular connection of the king and Proverbs, the book itself gives prescriptions for the king and provides didactic material for preparing the royal son to become a king.3 Numerous writers have noticed the ____________________ 1Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship," p. 39; and Scott, The Way of Wisdom, p. 9. 2Lindblom, "Wisdom in the Old Testament Prophets," p. 198; Porteous, "Royal Wisdom," p. 254; Gaspar, Social Ideas in the Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament, p. 162; and Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, pp. 138-39. 3Skladny, Die altesten Spruchsammlungen in Israel, pp. 14, 28; and Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in strong presence of the king directive literature in Proverbs.1 Skehan even uses the king-sayings as structural indicators, signalling the work of the editor both in Proverbs 16 and in 25.2 Bryce cautions against an overemphasis on kingship when he numerically tabulates that of the 300 sayings in Proverbs 16-25, only 24 deal explicitly with the king. He compares Proverbs 25 to the panegyric loyalist texts from Egypt.3 Lest one opt for a pan-royal approach to Proverbs, one should note the clear distinction between God and the king (Prov 21:1; 25:2).4 The critical remarks made about the rule of an evil man (Prov 28:15-16; 29:4), as well as numerous proverbs which do not reflect a royal ethos per se (Prov 10:5; 23:1-3) also suggest that a proverbial origin other than royal may be involved. The explicit connection between wisdom and the ____________________ Sacral Kingship," pp. 112-13. 1Humphreys, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Book of Proverbs," p. 185; Beaucamp, Man's Destiny in the Books of Wisdom, p. 4; and Waltke, "The Book of Proverbs and Ancient Wisdom Literature," p. 231. Kovacs beautifully specifies the subtypes of material under royal wisdom into more than ten categories (Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints," p. 156.
Old Testament," pp. 133, 144, 147. king has been surveyed briefly in the ancient Near Eastern sources and in the Bible, both inside and outside of designated wisdom books. All of these support a strong nexus between the king and wisdom materials. An extensive discussion of Solomon and his connection with wisdom need not be pursued since the abundant biblical and archaeological materials have been collated by others.1 Suffice it to say that Solomon's strong Egyptian alliances may be proposed as a background against which the collection of proverbs took its initial form. The comparison of Solomon's wisdom to that of Egypt's in a non-derogatory way (1 Kgs 4:30 [MT 5:10]) is unique when juxtaposed to the comparisons made between the prophets of Yahweh and the prophets of other nations. The five-fold reiteration of the announcement of Solomon's marriage to the pharaoh's daughter was significant to the biblical historiographers (1 Kgs 3:1; 7:8; 9:16, 24; 11:l).2 Even the structure of Solomon's government has been said to have been modeled on Egyptian precedents.3 ____________________ 1McCune, "Wisdom Theology and Proverbs: A Historical and Theological Evaluation," pp. 153-300; and Marion F. Christie, "The Reign of Solomon in the Light of Biblical and Archaeological Data" (Ph.D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1952).
literature. Vid. Soggin, "The Davidic-Solomonic Kingdom," p. 375.
pp. 10-11. Also vid. Mettinger, Solomonic State Officials. The frequent travels of Egyptian explorers, traders, and military personnel through Palestine are well-known in the historical texts and heroic tales of Egypt ("The Story of Sinuhe," "The Journey of Wen-Amon to Phoenicia," "The Asiatic Campaigns of Thut-mose III," and the various campaigns of Seti I). Heaton, perhaps over-developing a synthesis between the Solomonic court and Egypt, points out the close relationships, both politically and economically.1 One should not, however, use these comparative materials to ignore the canonical statements that God gave Solomon great wisdom. Yet, the forms and contents in which that wisdom expressed itself were compatible to the international culture in which Solomon lived. This includes Solomon's having received divine wisdom.
the attempt to circumscribe the multiplex Sitz im Leben of Proverbs, yet the discussion of the relationship between wisdom and the cult has been a subject of controversy. One of Crenshaw's fine students, Leo Perdue, has examined this topic in detail. His extensive analysis may be seen in his comprehensive listing of references to the ____________________ 1Heaton, Solomon's New Men, passim. Cf. also Rylaarsdam, Revelation in Jewish Wisdom Literature, p. 3. cult in ancient Near Eastern wisdom materials.1 While most scholars posit that wisdom has a tacitly neutral attitude toward the cult (since it is outside the purview of the empirical and pragmatic nature of wisdom), others have noted, particularly in Ecclesiastes, wisdom's direct antagonism to the cult.2 von Rad has located the cultic sphere "completely outside the jurisdiction of the teacher of wisdom."3 However he does see the man addressed in Proverbs as a member of the cultic community and as having numerous ties with the cult. Gordis states that the wise man had little enthusiasm for the cult and that Egyptian and Babylonian wisdom reveals the same inclinations.4 Similarly, von Rad later suggests that there is a cleavage between the wise and the priests, to which Bryce properly ____________________
Bryce ("Omen-Wisdom in Ancient Israel," JBL 94 [1975]:19) cites useful bibliographic materials on this subject..
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1977), p. xxi; Bullock, An Introduction to the Poetic Books, p. 24 (apparently ignorant of Perdue's work); John Paterson, The Wisdom of Israel, p. 85; J. Fichtner, Die altorientalische Weisheit, pp. 35-43; and Murphy, Introduction to the Wisdom Literature, p. 35. Ginsberg pictures an antagonism between the wise and the cult (H. L. Ginsberg, "The Structure and Contents of the Book of Koheleth," VTSup 3 [1969]:147).
Literature," p. 110; cf. Scott, The Way of Wisdom, p. 4. objects.1 In Egypt, "The Instructions of 'Onchsheshonqy" was written by a priest of Re at Heliopolis.2 The Sehetepibre instruction also shows the mingling of wisdom with the cult.3 The close association of Egyptian wisdom with
to a harmonization of wisdom and the cult.4 The case in Mesopotamia is much more easily made, since the omen-wisdom and the terms used in the biblical text labeling the foreign wise men as magicians are plentiful.5 The "Counsels of Wisdom" refers to sacrifices, prayers and other cultic responsibilities. In addition, the solution to the Babylonian Theodicy is a cultic one (cf. Job).6 ____________________
"Omen-Wisdom in Ancient Israel," p. 19. 2Gemser, "The Instructions of 'Onchsheshonqy and Biblical Wisdom Literature," p. 106. 3Bryce, "Omen-Wisdom in Ancient Israel," p. 35. 4Khanjian, Wisdom in Ugarit, p. 91. 5Bryce, "Omen-Wisdom in Ancient Israel," p. 20; and Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship," pp. 107-9.
(Babylonian Wisdom [London: Luzac and Co., 1923], p. 92) translates the "Babylonian Proverbs": "Daily thy god adore, With sacrifice and address becoming to incense offerings . . . . Fear (of god) begetteth favour (of god). Sacrifice increaseth life, and prayer dissolveth sin." The "Advice to a Prince" gives the prince instruction on the limits of temple conscription (Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, p. 115). The school texts found in the temple areas of Mari and Sippar and within the proximity of the temple at Ugarit should be viewed as diminishing any inherent tension between wisdom and the cult. At Ugarit wisdom texts came from "the library of the high priest." RS 15.10, for example, treats the making of a vow before the gods.1 School texts have been found in quantity in the mortuary temple of Ramesses II at Thebes and written records document the presence of a school in the temple of Mut at Karnak and in the Amun Temple.2 In Israel, the direct connection between the scribes/wise men and the priests is demonstrated in the historical narratives. The high priest and royal secretary act in concert, counting the temple money (2 Kgs 12:10). Abiathar, the priest, is said to have followed the infamous counselor Ahithophel (1 Chr 27:33). The priests are listed among the court leaders and sages, with no apparent separation because of their "religious" function (1 Kgs 4:2, 5). The presence of wisdom psalms in the Psalter would also caution against emphasizing the separation between the cult functionaries and the wise ____________________
and Scott, "Solomon and the Beginnings of Wisdom in Israel," VTsup 3 (1969):276.
216.
The priest's role in teaching may provide yet another point of contact between the areas of cult and wisdom (Lev 10:11; Deut 31:11; 33:10; Mal 2:6-7). This became a predominant priestly duty in the post-exilic period (Ezra 7:6). Though it may be correctly suggested that the area in which the wise man taught was not "torah" (i.e., not cultic), as shown by the themes covered in Proverbs, one must be careful in "detorahizing" the wise men (Jer 8:8, although Jer 18:18 is also realized).2 The kingship Sitz im Leben and the record of Solomon's presence at the cultic center of Gibeon, where he received wisdom from God in a vision, again suggest a cult-wisdom nexus (1 Kgs 3). While the cult and the king were welded together both in Mesopotamia and, particularly in Egypt, the king in Israel also participated in the cult in an unusual manner. Both David (2 Sam 6:13, 17-18) and Solomon (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 9:25) participated in cultic activities. Moreover, David's concern over the presence of the ark, his writing of numerous Psalms for utilization in cultic services, and Solomon's building and ____________________
Halvorsen, "Scribes and Scribal Schools," pp. 136, 177. 2Cody, A History of Old Testament Priesthood, pp. 118-19. Geo Widengren, "King and Covenant," JSS 2 (1957):1-21. dedicating of the temple reflect strong cultic interest by the king (cf. also Saul, 1 Sam 13:9; and Jeroboam, 1 Kgs 12:28-30). Thus, to separate wisdom and the cult seems a bit anachronistic.1 The negative comments in Proverbs concerning the cult are correctly perceived by Perdue not as a rejection of the cult per se, but as the denial of an opus operatum mind-set, against which the prophets also voiced their scathing criticism (Prov 15:8; 21:3; and, less acrid, 16:33).2 The terms "abomination" (Prov 11:1, 20) and "pleasing" (Prov 16:3) are viewed as cultic terms reflecting a divine response to the ethical character of the cultic participant.3 Proverbs does not always refer to vows and prayer in a negative light (Prov 15:8; 30:1), although it does warn against misuses (Prov 20:25; 28:9). Moreover, cultic participation is even encouraged by the wise man (Prov 3:9-10). Bryce properly laments the modern "secular/ sacred" dichotomy which has been read back into ancient ____________________
200-201.
2Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, pp. 160, 356; Burdett, "Wisdom Literature and the Promise Doctrine," p. 10; Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints," p. 383; and Ranston, The Old Testament Wisdom Books and Their Teaching, p. 24.
order of his world and how to operate successfully within that order, then the cult must be included, since it had an important function in the Weltanschauung of the people in ancient Israel. The themes of creation and "retribution," as well as the ordering of the cosmos, are common to both the cult and wisdom. The relationship of apocalyptic literature to wisdom may also provide a point of contact, particularly in the matter of dreams.2 One final point, before turning to the family as a part of the matrix of Proverbs, is the relationship of Yahwehism to the proverbial materials. Numerous scholars have viewed the religious character of some Proverbs as a later accretion to a largely secular, early wisdom tradition, as discussed above.3 'Onchsheshonqy contains twenty-four "God sayings."4 It is interesting that God, outside of wisdom,
____________________ 1Bryce, A Legacy of Wisdom, pp. 190, 206. Cf. Baumgartner, "The Wisdom Literature," p. 213. 2Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship," p. 100; and De Vries, "Observations on Quantitative and Qualitative Time in Wisdom and Apocalyptic," pp. 268-69. 3Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 50. Khanjian, "Wisdom in Ugarit," pp. 169, 187, 241, 247, 277. A good survey may be found by David A. Hasey, "Wisdom and Folly in the Book of Proverbs" (M.Div. thesis, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, 1973), pp. 20-21, 27-28.
source of wisdom (1 Kgs 3:12; Isa 31:2), and possibly even as a scribe/king (Exod 31:18).1 It is no accident that, in the approximately one hundred references to God in Proverbs, they all use His name "Yahweh." "The fear of Yahweh," (the very foundation and goal of wisdom) and Yahweh's role as creator, undergird all of the proverbs. These two central elements do not allow for simple scribal insertions of an extraneous Yahweh tradition into a secular core of proverbs. The interlacing of Yahweh proverbs and kingship proverbs (Prov 16) forms a beautiful unity, not to be dissected.2 The view of God which is portrayed in Proverbs is in harmony with Kohler's observation that "God is the ruling Lord: that is the one fundamental statement in the theology of the Old Testament."3 The demesne of God Yüklə 6,58 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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