Second Language Learning and Language Teaching

L2 learning is more than the transfer of the first language
One view of L2 learning sees its crucial element as the transfer of aspects of the
first language to the second language. The first language helps learners when it has
elements in common with the second language and hinders them when they dif-
fer. Spanish speakers may leave out the subject of the sentence when speaking
English, saying ‘Is raining’ rather than ‘It is raining’, while French speakers do not.
The explanation is that subjects may be omitted in Spanish, but they may not be
left out in French. Nor is it usually difficult to decide from accent alone whether a
foreigner speaking English comes from France, Brazil or Japan.
But the importance of such transfer has to be looked at with an open mind.
Various aspects of L2 learning need to be investigated before it can be decided
how and when the first language is involved in the learning of the second.
Though transfer from the first language indeed turns out to be important, often in
unexpected ways, its role needs to be established through properly balanced
research rather than the first language taking the blame for everything that goes
wrong in learning a second.
Learners have independent language systems of their own
Suppose a student learning English says, ‘Me go no school’. Many teachers would
see it as roughly the same as the native sentence, ‘I am not going to school’, even
if they would not draw the student’s attention to it overtly. In other words, this is
what the student might say if he or she were a native speaker. So this student is
Some background ideas of SLA research
13

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‘really’ trying to produce a present continuous tense ‘am going’, a first person sub-
ject ‘I’, a negative ‘not’, and an adverbial ‘to school’, ending up with the native
version ‘I am not going to school’. But something has gone drastically wrong with
the sentence. Perhaps the student has not yet encountered the appropriate forms
in English or perhaps he or she is transferring constructions from the first lan-
guage. The assumption is that the student’s sentence should be compared to one
produced by a native speaker. Sometimes this comparison is justified, as native-
like speech is often a goal for the student.
This is what many students 
want
to be, however, not what they 
are
at the
moment. It is judging the students by what they are 
not
– native speakers. SLA
research insists that learners have the right to be judged by the standards appropri-
ate for them, not by those used for natives. ‘Me go no school’ is an example of
learner language that shows what is going on in their minds. ‘Me’ shows that they
do not distinguish ‘I’ and ‘me’, unlike native English; ‘no’ that negation consists
for them of adding a negative word after the verb, unlike its usual position before
the verb; ‘go’ that they have no grammatical endings such as ‘-ing’, and so on. All
these apparent ‘mistakes’ conform to regular rules in the students’ own knowledge
of English; they are only wrong when measured against native speech. Their sen-
tences relate to their own temporary language systems at the moment when they
produce the sentence, rather than to the native’s version of English.
However peculiar and limited they may be, learners’ sentences come from the
learners’ own language systems; their L2 speech shows rules and patterns of its
own. At each stage learners have their own language systems. The nature of these
learner systems may be very different from that of the target language. Even if they
are idiosyncratic and constantly changing, they are nonetheless systematic. The
starting point for SLA research is the learner’s own language system. This can be
called the ‘independent language assumption’: learners are not wilfully distorting
the native system, but are inventing a system of their own. Finding out how stu-
dents learn means starting from the curious rules and structures which they
invent for themselves as they go along – their ‘interlanguage’, as Larry Selinker
(1972) put it. This is shown in Figure 1.1.
Background
14
The interlanguage concept had a major impact on teaching techniques in the
1970s. Teaching methods that used drills and grammatical explanations had
insisted on the seriousness of the students’ mistakes. A mistake in an audio-lingual
drill meant the student had not properly learnt the ‘habit’ of speaking; a mistake in
a grammatical exercise meant the student had not understood the rule. The concept
of the learner’s own system liberated the classroom and in part paved the way for
the communicative language teaching methods of the 1970s and 1980s, and the
task-based learning of the 1990s. Learners’ sentences reflect their temporary lan-
guage systems rather than their imperfect grasp of the target language. If a student
First
language
(L1)
Second
language
(L2)
Learner's
independent
language
(interlanguage)
Figure 1.1 The learner’s independent language (interlanguage)

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makes a ‘mistake’, it is not the fault of the teacher or the materials or even of the stu-
dent, but an inevitable and natural part of the learning process. Teachers could now
use teaching activities in which students talked to each other rather than to the
teacher, because the students did not need the teacher’s vigilant eye to spot what
they were doing wrong. Their mistakes were minor irritants rather than major haz-
ards. They could now work in pairs or groups, as the teacher did not have to super-
vise the students’ speech continuously to pinpoint their mistakes.
In my own view, not yet shared by the SLA research field as a whole, the inde-
pendent grammars assumption does not go far enough. On the one hand, we have
the user’s knowledge of their first language; on the other, their interlanguage in
the second language. But these languages coexist in the same mind; one person
knows both. Hence we need a name to refer to the overall knowledge that com-
bines both the first language and the L2 interlanguage, namely 
multi-competence
(Cook, 1992) – the knowledge of two languages in the same mind (shown in
Figure 1.2). The lack of this concept has meant SLA research has still treated the
two languages separately rather than as different facets of the same person, as we
see from time to time in the rest of this book.
Some background ideas of SLA research
15
First
language
(L1)
Second
language
(L2)
Learner's
independent
language
(
interlanguage
)
Multicompetence
Figure 1.2 Multi-competence