The wonder that was india

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This made him unpopular in the predominantly orthodox Sunni country. The Uzbeks, under Shaybani's nephew 'Ubaydu'llah Khan, subsequently rallied their forces, and after two years Babur was forced to return to Kabul. There he acquired firearms with the help of Turkish gunners and strengthened his army.

Immediately after Babur had settled in Kabul in 1504 he developed an interest in the conquest of India. In 1505 he had reconnoitred regions to the west of the river Indus, as far as Jamrud, Kohat, and Tarblla. In 1519 he mounted his first invasion of India, seizing Bajaur by storm and imposing a ransom on its people. Next he sent an envoy to Ibrahim Lodi, asking him to surrender the west Panjab region previously conquered by Timur. Because this proposal would mean his loss of the Panjab, the governor there, Dawlat Khan, stopped the envoy going further than Lahore. Babur returned to Kabul again and in September of the same year invaded the Yusufza'is. In 1220 he mounted his third invasion of India and seized Sialkot. For two years he was busy occupying Qandahar. Then in 1523 Dawlat Khan's son, Dilawar, and Bahlul's younger son, 'Alam Khan, also visited Babur to induce him to overthrow Ibrahim Lodi. In Delhi, getting an inkling of the conspiracy, Ibrahim Lodi sent an army against Lahore to nip the invasion in the bud. His forces seized Lahore, and Dawlat Khan took refuge in Multan. Babur, who had left Kabul on his fourth Indian expedition, was meanwhile approaching Lahore and he in turn defeated Ibrahim's army. Lahore was sacked and burned. Then Babur moved to Dipalpur where Dawlat Khan was waiting to obtain the Panjab from him. His expectations were unrealistic, since Babur had himself decided to seize Delhi and was not prepared to be merely Dalwa't Khan's tool. Appointing a governor at Lahore, Babur left for Kabul to organize reinforcements. After Babur's departure, Dawlat Khan imprisoned his son, Dilawar, who had disclosed his plans to Babur, captured Sultan-pur, and defeated 'Alam Khan in Dipalpur. 'Alam Khan fled to Kabul, but Babur sent him back to Lahore with a body of troops and a letter to the Mughal commander there ordering him to help 'Alam Khan.

Babur left Kabul in October 1525 to conquer India. 'Alam Khan had meanwhile laid siege to Delhi but was repulsed by Ibrahim's army. By this time Dawlat Khan had assembled an army of between 20,000 and 30,000 men in the Panjab but early in January 1526 he surrendered to Babur.

Ibrahim left Delhi to meet Babur with an army of 100,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. Babur's army comprised about 10,000 "troopers. He took up a position near Panipat, keeping the town and

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its suburbs on his right. Cannons mounted on wagons had been placed in front of his army. Between sets of wagons, tied together by strong rope, were gaps where small breastworks had been erected to deploy one or two hundred horsemen. On the left, and in other strategic areas, ditches had been dug. Babur's cavalry, or 'flying flanks', r.was expert in making lightning attacks on the enemy's flanks and rear. Ibrahim's army depended on elephants and consisted of mercenaries. The battle took place on 21 April 1526. Babur's flying flanks wheeled from right and left to attack the enemy's rear, showering Ibrahim's troops with arrows. Ibrahim sent reinforcements to the hard-pressed flanks. Groups from Babur's right, left, and centre surrounded clusters of Indian troops, while the cannons discharged balls on them from the left-hand side. By the afternoon the Indian armies, which had no experience of these tactics, had been routed. Between 16,000 and 40,000 Indians were killed. Herd upon herd of elephants was captured. Besides an immense quantity of booty, Delhi and Agra fell into Babur's hands.4 At Agra the family of Gwalior's rulers presented the famous Koh-i Nur diamond to Babur's son, Humayun. Babur was very generous in sharing the booty with his noblemen (called Begs) and soldiers. All the Kabul residents also received some money, and even the major Muslim towns in Central Asia and the holy cities of Mecca and Medina were not forgotten.

Babur treated those Afghan leaders who submitted to him magnanimously. He assigned to his Mughal Begs the revenue of various areas between Delhi and Kanauj. Those territories which .had not as yet surrendered were also assigned to the Begs, who subdued the recalcitrant Afghan leaders and brought the region under Mughal rule. Nevertheless it took a long time to restore confidence to the general populace, who took to flight at the sight of Mughal troops. A large number of Babur's own Begs were unwilling to stay in India; they were interested only in war and plunder. Babur settled down in Agra, preparing schemes for further conquests and supervising the casting of mortars. He spent his leisure hours organizing the laying out of gardens, digging of wells, and planting of fruit trees from Kabul in Indian soil. Nothing deterred him from noting down in his daily diary the observations he had started to record after ascending the throne.

The most formidable threat to the nascent Mughal empire was Rana Sanga, the mighty ruler of Mewar, who dreamed of restoring the great empire of Prithviraja Chauhan. A large number of Rajput chiefs had joined him to fight the Mughals. Hasan Khan Mewatl had also formed an alliance with him to overthrow Babur. Although the Rana could not occupy land further than Chanderi,

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he much preferred to see the weak Ibrahim on the throne of Delhi and Agra than the formidable Babur. The Rana consequently made full preparations and marched to expel Babur from India. Babur moved towards Sikri, but his Begs were frightened by the Rana's fame as an invincible warrior. The arrival of reinforcements from Kabul encouraged them, but then an astrologer's calculations predicting Babur's defeat spread consternation in the Mughal army. Babur, however, did not panic; in order to reassure his army of his confidence in Allah's support he renounced the wine forbidden by Islam, which until then he had enjoyed drinking with his friends. He also ordered that gold and silver wine vessels should be broken and the pieces distributed to the needy and the dervishes. He then reiterated his vow to remit transit dues called tamgha on Muslim merchandise.5 Meanwhile, however, the regions between Kol and Kanauj had been reconquered by the Afghan leaders and the Mughal garrisons expelled.

On 17 March 1527 the final battle between the Mughals and the Rajputs was fought at Kanwah near Sikri. The Mughal gunners and matchlockmen took up their positions behind the carts, and wheeled tripods for the guns were arrayed in front of the army. The ropes joining the carts had been replaced by chains. The Rajput army, which outnumbered Babur's army many times, made a determined attack on Babur's extreme right. The Mughals retaliated fiercely, their guns playing havoc all around the enemy ranks. Wave after wave of Rajput troops stormed Babur's right but could not smash the Mughal ranks. The Rajputs then directed their pressure to the left but could not shake it. Then Babur's cavalry besieged the Rajputs from all sides and balked the Rajput counterattacks. Before evening Babur had gained a decisive victory. Innumerable leading Rajputs, fighting with their proverbial chivalry, were killed. Babur, who had from the outset declared the war against the Rajputs to be jihad (holy war), assumed the title of Ghazi (Islamic Hero).6 The defeated Rana Sanga died of poison at Kalpi towards the end of January 1528.

The Kanwah victory secured Babur's Indian throne, and he finally allowed those Begs who were reluctant to stay in India to return to Kabul. His son, Humayun, was ordered to control Kabul and Badakhshan. Babur reached Chanderi in January 1528, but the news of the loss of Avadh, which he had already received, prevented him invading Raisen, Bhilsa, and Sarangpur. Instead he returned to Kanauj and marched as far as Baksar on the Ganges, driving his Afghan enemies deep into Bihar and Bengal. In Bengal, Nusrat Shah sided with the defeated Afghans and by the end of December 1528 they had organized a three-pronged drive against

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the Mughals in the region of Chunar, Banaras, and Ghazipur. Babur marched personally against them in January 1529 and reached the borders of Bihar, but the ensuing rainy season made him return to Agra without engaging them in battle.

Babur's son Humayun failed to regain Samarqand from the Uzbeks. Babur therefore recalled Humayun from Badakhshan and gave it to his youngest son, Hindal. At the end of June 1529 Humayun arrived at Agra. By now Babur's health had been shattered by the long and strenuous campaigns he had fought and the hot Indian climate. In addition, he had substituted heavy doses of opium and other drugs for the liquor he had renounced. Babur died on 26 December 1530. Several years later his dead body was taken to Kabul and buried in the terrace of a beautiful garden. According to his will no dome or other structure surmounted his grave, because the great lover of nature preferred exposure to snow and sun.

As a military leader Babur had no equal in his day. His indomitable courage ensured the confidence of his commanders and troops. As a soldier he was dauntless, never giving way to panic or despair. Nothing could shake his belief in his own ultimate success with divine help. Babur loved to call himself a qalandar (carefree dervish), and the prodigality of his nature and lavish rewards to his Begs and soldiers justified this Claim. He was very creative, frequently introducing innovations when building monuments, laying out gardens and orchards, and casting new types of guns and matchlocks.7 His martial and diplomatic strategies were always well calculated. The cold hand of death prevented a demonstration of his administrative abilities, but the fragmentary records available to us show his deep awareness of the problems inherent in governing the multicultural and multi-religious society of India. He remains unsurpassed as a writer of both poetry and prose in Chaghatay-Turki, his mother tongue; his memoirs frankly confess his own failures and are free from inhibitions. Always welcoming the company of scholars and poets, he enjoyed many erudite discussions with them. Babur was a devoted follower of the famous Naqshbandiyya sufi Khwaja 'Ubaydu'llah Ahrar (d. 1490), whose writings he loved, finding comfort in them for his body and spirit.8 Sectarian enmities and quarrels were furthest from his mind. He was a lovable man who enjoyed excursions with his friends and happily braved storms, frost, and snow while out hunting. Babur admired the Indian acrobats and was himself fond of wrestling and swimming. At wine-parties his joviality knew no bounds, and he drank without restraint. Liquor never prevented him from immediately carrying out any duty, however. Through

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his courage and many-sided genius the foundations of the Mughal empire were laid.

Babur's eldest son, Humayun, was born on 6 March 1508. Me had three half-brothers: Kamran, who was a year or two younger, 'Askari (b. 1516), and Hindal (b. January 1519). Humayun's throne was no bed of roses. Besides his brothers and his brother-in-law, Muhammad Zaman Mirza, other Timurid princes and Afghan chiefs were a potent threat. Following the Turco-Mongol custom, Humayun divided the empire among his half-brothers, but they were dissatisfied with their portions. Kamran, who had received Kabul and Badakhshan, forcibly seized Lahore and the rest of the Panjab. To avoid civil war, Humayun left them in Kamran's hands, thereby forfeiting not only extensive territories but also control of the military roads from Kabul to Delhi. Nevertheless, for the time being Kamran was satisfied and apparently grateful.

Humayun now turned his attention to the Afghan rebels east of Lucknow. Before he could attack them, however, he received the alarming news that Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, having consolidated his Malwa conquests, was moving against the Mughal frontiers. Humayun hastily made a treaty with the rising Afghan leader Sher Khan Sur, leaving him in full control of the area east of Banaras. Sher Khan thus gained a strong base from which to mount further operations against the Mughals.

In November 1534 Humayun marched towards Malwa to crush Bahadur Shah, who was besieging Chitor. Humayun moved slowly, reinforcing his army and countering the unexpected Afghan attack. The respite gained by Bahadur Shah enabled him to storm Chitor and conquer it.9

Humayun seized Mandu. In July 1536, displaying remarkable heroism, he stormed Champanir after four months' blockade. Then he occupied Ahmadabad. Had Humayun made Bahadur Shah, who was a popular ruler, his vassal he would not have failed so miserably, but he instead appointed 'Askari viceroy of Gujarat. Humayun had only just left Ahmadabad in pursuit of Bahadur when he was forced to return by the alarming news of rebellions in the northern provinces. Once again Humayun moved slowly, this time in order to give the rebels time to surrender, and spent four to five months resting at Mandu. In Gujarat, 'Askari's lack of tact and inexperience alienated his nobles, who refused to support him. Bahadur marched to Ahmadabad, but Humayun took no prompt action to prevent Gujarat being recaptured. 'Askari fled to Champanir and thence to Agra. In February 1537 Humayun reached Agra. Both Gujarat and Malwa had now passed out of

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Mughal control. The two years wasted by Humayun in his fruitless Gujarat expeditions had made Sher Khan a formidable threat.

SHER KHAN (LATER SHER SHAH) SUR

The early history of Sher Khan, whose original name was Farid, is based on legends of the nostalgic Afghans collected during Akbar's reign and is not dependable. Farid's grandfather and father migrated from Roh and served several Afghan nobles at the courts of Bahlul and Sikandar. Farid was born in Bahlul's reign. His early life in his father's polygamous home had been unhappy, but he acquired an excellent literary education at Jaunpur through his own efforts. Farid's career began with the administration of his father's iqta' at Sahasram in south Bihar. There he put his theoretical knowledge to practical use by establishing a clear understanding between the peasants and the village chiefs. Naturally the area prospered, to the great satisfaction of Farid and his father, Hasan, but his stepmother's jealousy forced Farid to seek another avenue of employment. He moved to the court of the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Sultan Muhammad Nuhani, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery. After Babur's victory over Rana Sanga, Sher Khan entered Mughal service and subsequently was rewarded with a grant of land. Nevertheless he deserted the Mughal camp at Chanderi with the conviction that the Mughals were not invincible and that his future lay in an independent career in eastern India. Sher Khan did not, however, sever relations with the Mughals. He gained a hold over Bihar, and, when Humayun ascended the throne, his diplomacy and military talents made him the ruler of the region from Chunar to Patna. Humayun's treaty with Sher Khan in February 1533, allowing him to retain Chunar fort which controlled the road to Bihar and eastern India, was a great victory for the rising Afghan chief. During the next four years Sher Khan recruited a large number of Afghans, many of whom had lost their jobs during the Malwa war. Some important Afghan leaders also joined him. Sher Khan consolidated his hold over the region extending from Chunar to northern Bihar. At the end of February 1536 he appeared before the walls of Gaur in Bengal and obtained enormous sums in indemnity from its ruler, Mahmud Shah.10

Humayun, having just returned to Agra from Gujarat, could not immediately march against Sher Khan but first spent some time organizing the administration. Then, at the end of July 1537, he left

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Agra on his eastern campaign and besieged Chunar in January 1538. The garrison resisted for five months, and it was only after the Turkish artillery commander, Rumi Khan, constructed a mobile battery of boats which damaged the walls of the fort that the Afghans surrendered. Sher Khan, who had again invaded Gaur in October 1537, returned meanwhile to Rohtas in Bihar and seized it from its Hindu raja by trickery. In April 1538 his Afghans took Gaur. Humayun, who had already wasted considerable time besieging Chunar, now captured Banaras. There he learned of Sher Khan's Bengal conquests. He marched towards Patna and opened negotiations with Sher Khan, offering him undisputed rule in Chunar and Jaunpur if he surrendered Rohtas and Bengal to the Emperor's representative. Sher Khan demanded Bengal too and asked Humayun to confine his rule to the area west of Jaunpur. Shortly afterwards the Sultan of Bengal himself came to Humayun for aid. Humayun marched towards Gaur, but his progress was checked at the Garhi pass by Sher Khan's son, who had been commissioned to prevent the Mughal advance. In September 1538 Humayun reached Gaur and seized it without any opposition. The Emperor stayed there for three to four months, thereby giving Sher Khan opportunity to invade the region around Banaras. Humayun then sent his brother Hindal to Tirhut and Purnea to collect supplies, but Hindal went instead to Agra and declared himself king. Humayun next sent Shaykh Phul, the famous Shattariyya sufi, to arouse Hindal's sense of obedience, but Hindal callously killed him." The Emperor now assembled his troops from the Bengal districts and hurriedly marched to Chausa, which divided Bihar from Banaras. There Sher Khan's war-weary army was sighted. For two months Sher Khan managed to keep Humayun inactive by exchanging peace messages. Then he marched off in full battle array, giving the impression that he was going to fight some far-distant Hindu raja. A subsequent week of mock-campaigns lulled the Mughals into a false sense of security. On 7 June 1539, before dawn, the Afghan army swooped down upon the Mughal camp, taking it completely by surprise. Almost the whole Mughal force was destroyed, and Humayun, falling from his saddle while fleeing across the Ganges on horseback, was forced to use an inflated skin offered him by a poor water-carrier. The victorious Sher Khan gave the Mughal ladies safe conduct home. Then, at Banaras, he declared himself an independent king with the title Sher Shah. His Afghan army easily reconquered Bengal.

After two years' absence Humayun returned with the remnants of his defeated army to Agra, where Kamran was awaiting him. 'Askari, who had also managed to escape from Chausa, was there,

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as well as Hindal, who was forced to promise his loyalty. Humayun made the water-carrier who had saved his life king for half a day in fulfilment of his promise. His nobles were utterly disgusted.

Mirza Kamran, who was thoroughly distressed at the Chausa debacle, offered to march against Sher Shah with his fresh troops, but Humayun rejected the suggestion, since he was determined to avenge the defeat personally. Then Kamran fell ill and returned to Lahore, taking his army with him despite the Emperor's request that they stay behind to fight Sher Shah. For seven months no concerted Mughal plan was made. In March 1540 Sher Shah, now well prepared to make a final bid for the throne of India, moved towards Kanauj. Humayun, with about 40,000 well-armed soldiers and some 60,000 retainers, crossed the Ganges. The battle took place on 17 May 1540 near Kanauj. The Afghan army consisted of only 10,000 horsemen, but their flanking detachments, avoiding the Mughal artillery, drove the Mughal cavalry into the centre between the opposing forces, causing great panic. The Afghan's vigorous charges smashed first Humayun's left wing, then his right, and lastly the central Mughal army. Many Mughals were drowned fleeing across the Ganges. Hotly pursued by the Afghans, Humayun reached Agra with great difficulty. From there he returned to Delhi on his way to Lahore. Kamran offered no help and refused him asylum in Kabul and Badakhshan, although he consented to take care of his brother's family. Kamran also tried to make peace with Sher Shah but had to leave for Kabul because of the Afghan's determination to drive the Mughals out of India. Humayun left for Sind in order to make it a base for further operations to regain the throne. Thus began his fifteen-year exile.12

THE SUR SULTANATE

The Sur sultanate of Sher' Shah was short-lived but it was better planned and administered than the first Afghan Lodi empire. Sher Shah was fifty-five or sixty when he ascended the throne; he ruled vigorously until his accidental death five years later. His first task was to ensure that the Mughals did not reconquer India.

After Humayun left Agra, Sher Shah stayed there for only a fortnight. Then, marching through Delhi and Sirhind, he reached Lahore hot on the heels of the fleeing Mughals. From Lahore, Sher Shah set out towards Bhira, halting at Khushab to dispatch detachments to chase the Mughal princes. He was now confronted with the more complex problem of controlling the hill ranges in the

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northern part of the Jhelam, Shahpur, and Mianwali districts of the Panjab, called the Salt Range. These hills were home to the turbulent Gujar, Bhatti, and Khokhar tribes which had not been completely subdued by the Delhi sultans, mainly because of the Mongol raids in the region. Sher Shah took the far-sighted step of constructing a formidable fort on the north-west of Jhelam town, which he named Rohtas, after the fort in Bihar.

Sher Shah had just begun to concern himself with the problems of upper Sind and Multan when he received news that Khizr Khan, his governor in Bengal, had married the daughter of Mahmud Shah, the late Bengal ruler, and had usurped the prerogatives of an independent sovereign. Sher Shah rushed to Gaur, reaching it in the rainy season of 1541, and imprisoned the governor. He next reorganized the administration and appointed Qazi Fazilat, a Muslim jurist, to co-ordinate the work of the divisional heads. To prevent future rebellion no governor was appointed.

On his return from Bengal, Sher Shah seized Gwalior from Humayun's governor and brought Malwa under his control. He appointed military commanders to strategic centres in the area.13

In the beginning of the rainy reason of 1542 Sher Shah returned to Agra, where he learnt that Humayun was hovering on the Marwar frontier. Maldeva, the ruler of Marwar, had opened negotiations with Humayun to overthrow Sher Shah, but the Afghan's conquest of Malwa frightened him, and he retracted his undertaking to help Humayun.

Silahdi Purbiya Puranmal of Chanderi, who like his father was accused of dishonouring Muslim women and training them to be dancing girls, was Sher Shah's next target. Unable to capture Raisen, Puranmal's stronghold, he seized it by perfidy. Sher Shah's governors conquered Multan and ravaged the Baluch territories. Upper Sind, including the notable forts of Bhakkar and Sehwan, was also captured. Sher Shah's conquests of Sind made Maldeva's western borders even more unsafe.

Towards the end of 1543 Sher Shah marched towards Marwar at the head of a very strong army, but Maldeva was still formidable in the Mount Abu region. The Emperor faked treacherous letters in the names of Maldeva's commanders and had them delivered to his camp. When he read them Maldeva was so panic-stricken that he fled, ignoring his loyal commanders' entreaties. The Rajput army nevertheless fought stubbornly. Sher Shah was victorious but often remarked, referring to the barren Marwar territories, that he had nearly lost the empire of Hindustan for a handful of millet.14

Sher Shah's general, Khawas Khan, then seized Jodhpur while "Sher Shah himself captured Ajmir and completely overran the

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Mount Abu region. After returning to Agra, a few months later he attacked the famous Raj as than fort, Chitor, which was now weakened by internal feuds. It capitulated without much resistance. The Kacchwaha territory of Dhundhar (near modern Jaipur) also surrendered. Sher Shah's capture of the chain of forts from Malwa to Marwar was a unique achievement, but the Raja of Kalinjar, who sympathized with Humayun, was still defiant. Sher Shah blockaded this fort but failed to storm it. The Rajputs there fought back to back for seven months. Finally, however, when mines had been laid, a lofty tower for mounting a battery had been erected, and covered approaches were ready, the attack was launched. Lighted hand-grenades were thrown into the fort. One grenade suddenly struck the wall and, rebounding into a heap of hand-grenades, exploded. Immediately the whole ammunition dump blew up. Sher Shah himself was very badly burned, and although the fort was stormed and the Rajputs overpowered, he died, with his ambitions unrealized.