FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF MINNEAPOLIS
QR
4
specifies the degree of patience, with a higher value
indicating more patience for consumption and leisure.
The parameter
�
> 0 specifies the value of nonmarket
productive time for the household. Given that on a per
person basis a household has about 100 hours of pro-
ductive time per week, nonmarket productive time is
100
−
h hours per week per working-age person in the
household. Following the tradition in macroeconomics,
this nonmarket productive time will be referred to as lei-
sure even though much of it is time allocated to working
in the nonmarket sector and in the underground market
sector. The important thing for the analysis is that any
production using this time is not taxed.
In the model economy, the household owns the capital
and rents it to the firm. This is an assumption of con-
venience because the findings are identical if the firm
owns the capital and the household owns the firm, or if
the firm is partially debt financed. The law of motion
governing the capital stock is
(2)
k
k x
t
t
t
+
= −
+
1
1
(
)
�
where
k is the capital stock,
x is investment, and
�
is
the depreciation rate.
The theory also has a stand-in firm with a Cobb-
Douglas production function,
(3)
y c x g
A k h
t
t
t
t
it t t
= + +
≤
−
�
�
1
.
Here
y denotes output,
c consumption, and
g pure public
consumption. The capital share parameter is
0 < <
�
1,
and the total factor productivity parameter of country
i at date
t is
A
it
. I will not specify the process on{A
it
}
because it plays no role in the inference being drawn,
except to implicitly restrict the process governing its
evolution in a way that results in the existence of a
competitive equilibrium.
The household’s date t budget constraint is
(4)
(
)
(
)
1
1
+
+ +
�
�
c
t
x
t
c
x
= −
+ −
−
+
+
(
)
(
)(
)
1
1
�
�
�
�
h
t t
k
t
t
t
t
w h
r
k
k T
where
w
t
is the real wage rate,
r
t
the rental price of cap-
ital,
�
c
the consumption tax rate,
�
x
the investment tax
rate,
�
h
the marginal labor tax rate,
�
k
the capital income
tax rate, and
T
t
transfers. I emphasize that the marginal
and average labor income taxes will be very different.
All tax revenue except for that used to finance the
pure public consumption is given back to the households
either as transfer payments or in-kind. These transfers are
lump sum, being independent of a household’s income.
Most public expenditures are substitutes for private
consumption in the G-7 countries. Here I will assume
that they substitute on a one-to-one basis for private
consumption with the exception of military expendi-
tures. The goods and services in question consist mostly
of publicly provided education, health care, protection
services, and even judiciary services. My estimate of
pure public consumption g is two times military’s share
of employment times GDP.
In having only one consumption good, I am following
Christiano and Eichenbaum (1992). Rogerson (2003)
finds that this one-consumption-good abstraction is
not a good one for studying aggregate labor supply in
the Scandinavian countries. One possible reason is that
some publicly provided goods, such as child care for
working parents, must be treated as a separate good.
Often the receipt of this good is contingent on working,
and this must be taken into account in the household’s
constraint set. However, the one-consumption-good
abstraction used in this study is a reasonable one for the
set of countries considered.
This is a far simpler tax system than the one employed
in any of the G-7 countries. Introducing accelerated de-
preciation and investment tax credits would affect the
price of the investment good relative to the consumption
good, but would not alter the inference drawn in this
article. Similarly, introducing a corporate sector, with
dividends not taxed, as is generally the case in Europe,
or taxed as ordinary income, as they are in the United
States, would not alter any conclusion significantly.
For further details on these issues, see McGrattan and
Prescott 2002. What is important here is the price of
consumption relative to leisure, and it is determined
by the consumption tax rate
�
c
and the marginal labor
income tax rate
�
h
.
The most important parameter that will enter the equi-
librium relation that I use to predict the consequences
of the tax system is the utility of leisure preference pa-
rameter
�
,which measures the value of leisure relative
to consumption. The capital cost share parameter
�
also
enters the relation, but is of less importance.
Key Equilibrium Relation
The labor and consumption tax rates can be combined
into a single tax rate
�
,which I call the effective marginal
tax rate on labor income. It is the fraction of additional