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of them today. This question highlights
universal problems associated with the study
of mythology and symbolic systems of
traditions (i.e. religions) that have not survived
to the present day – so-called
dead traditions –
and therefore cannot be examined by way of an
anthropologically-based enquiry. I believe that
the study of oral epic traditions may shore up
many theoretically and methodologically
interesting research questions and principles
that can be useful for other specialists,
including
religious
studies
academics,
linguists, and cultural theoreticians. Among
other things, this book is an attempt for a kind
of
archaeology and anthropology of text. One
of its goals is the reconstruction of beliefs,
imagination and symbolic representations of
the archaic, bygone societies.
The book is divided into three equally
extensive parts. Its first chapter is theoretical
and methodological. The chapter sums up the
basic nature and features of the primary
sources and presents substantial theoretical
attitudes that must be mentioned in order to
pursue subsequent analysis. Readers are
introduced to the issues
central to Russian oral
epic studies, including the history of the genre
and its academic reception. Then I present the
corpus’s basic oral-formulaic and structural
principles and explore issues of the oral text
intertextuality and the fragmentation of texts
into smaller narrative units. Next I thoroughly
present Lévi-Strauss’s notion of
mythème as a
useful concept for studying the narrative and
structural units of epic songs. Finally, I
propose my own structural concept of myth
and cultural representation. I understand
myth
as any narrative with a potential to make sense
in the context of particular culture and its
symbolic universe of meanings, norms, and
values. My contention is that, thusly
conceived, the mythopoetic and performative
potential of bylinaic narratives shows them as
a very important part of Indo-European
mythological and epic tradition.
In the second, central part of this study, I
attempt to apply the above-mentioned
methodological principles to the Svyatogor
narrative itself. The two central characters of
the narrative are carefully introduced to the
reader. I then present an analysis of the
narrative in its 37 variants. In order to make
sense of the local context of intertextual
bylinaic tradition, I employ a thorough analysis
of the story while seeking to demonstrate
which mythemes – and their relations – were
fundamental to this narrative. My thesis claims
that these narratives primarily deal with the
themes of the initiation of a young hero, the
generational conflict and the law of succession,
and the transmission of a mentor’s position to
his apprentice (or, metaphorically, a father’s
position to his son). I then take the ‘additional’
episodes concerning Svyatogor’s wife and
father into consideration. My conclusions yield
proposals: I schematically sum up substantial
structural relations I observe to be embedded
in my pantotypic reconstruction of the
narrative. I then attempt to discern what
meanings these abstract structures could have
had for the recipients of the
bylina. I observe
that traditional singers of these tales pursued
many compositional rules. On the basis of this
survey I assume that many – even substantial –
differences between particular variants of the
story can be understood as meaningful
structural variations of the basic mythemes,
mythemes that formed a narrative core and
from which the tissue, so to speak, of the songs
was composed. I identify two particularly
important mythemes: first, the mytheme of
inflicted and cancelled inhibition and, second,
the
mytheme
of
overestimated
social
relationships. The mythemes of
acceptance or
denial of one’s destiny and
insidiousness of the
dying giant seem important as well.
The third and last part of my study consists
of a comparative survey of general narrative
structures, mythemes, and an isolation of
particular motives found in Svyatogor narratives.
The hypothesis about initiation- and destiny-
based meaning of the
bylina is subsequently
tested via a two-phased comparative analysis
of the central mythemes and their clusters:
Firstly, I compare the
context of the immanent
corpus of bylinaic and the synchronic
ethnographic circumstances of the Russian
North (i.e. I make an internal comparison). My
analysis reaches up to the possible textual
layers that belong to a semantic horizon of the
Kievan Rus’; it is assumed that the core of the
Russian folk epics originated among the court
182
singers of the Ruthenian princes. The
ethnographic evidence is dealt with as well – I
examine the semantic range of the concepts of
marriage, relationship of men to women, sin,
destiny, and death. I also consider the possible
remnants of boys’ initiation in the bylinaic
tradition and in East Slavic folklore.
Finally I deal with the subject in a wider
scope of the common Eurasian mythical and
epic traditions (i.e. I make an external
comparison). Mythemes from the Svyatogor
bylinas are compared with Indo-European,
Caucasian, and Ugro-Finn mythological and
epic traditions. Based on the works of
preceding researchers and the narrative
parallels discovered by them, I present a
complex picture of shared narrative principles
among different traditions. I propose new
narrative parallels based on the motif of the
passing on of Svyatogor’s strength, generally
ignored by previous interpreters. I introduce a
narrative about the transmission of power to
Bǫðvarr Bjarki through his brother Elc-Fróði
in
Hrólfssaga kraka, an episode from the life
of Þéttleifr the Dane in
Þiðrekssaga af Bern,
and some other examples. I also propose
previously unnoticed
ritual parallels: firstly
the Vedic rite of passage concerning the death
of the father and his passing of the vital forces
to his son (mentioned twice in the
Upaniṣads),
and its collation with the archaic Roman ritual
postremum spiritum excipere.
My comparative analysis of the strength-
transmission motif is also supplemented by the
linguistic and anthropological examination of
the various archaic concepts of the human vital
sources of energy, life, and strength. Besides
that I propose possible etymological connection
(based mostly on the works of R. Kregždys) of
the
Slavic lexeme sila [‘strength, power’]) and
Lithuanian
siela [‘soul’] and
seila [‘saliva’].
From this I suggest a common etymology of
these Balto-Slavic lexemes and the Germanic
words for the ‘stuff of life’ arising from the
reconstructed Proto-Germanic root *
saiwalō
(> Eng.
soul, Ger.
Seele, Old Norse
sála, etc.)
which has to date been interpreted as
something along the lines of ‘connected with
the sea’, a hypothetical Germanic otherworld.
Also, I highlight a possible connection
between Ilya’s unusual heroic initiation by the
giant Svyatogor on the one hand, and the
archaic paederastic and homoerotic initiation
rituals from various Indo-European and other
cultures on the other.
The book is supplemented
by the collection
of the 37 variants of the
bylina in the Russian
original and its Czech translation.
I attempt to interpret Svyatogor’s
bylinas in
the context of initiation rituals. It conclude that
in the foreground of the Svyatogor’s narrative
complex stands a story about the origin of the
exceptional and famous young hero who takes
advantage of Svyatogor – or even causes his
own death. Ilya Muromets as an ultimate and
invincible hero kills his old mentor and teacher
(perhaps, metaphorically, his father), and even
later his own son, Sokolnik.
Ilya is the optimal
and the most perfect archetype of an epic hero –
he is a powerful warrior who can be corrupted
neither by riches, nor women, and the only
value he stands for is the Mother Rus’ whom
he devotedly protects from intruders.
Svyatogor, in comparison, is a much more
complex and ambivalent character. His point
of view in the presented narrative is actually a
sad swan song of an old, exhausted hero who
has problems with women. There is no place
for him in this world. He simply wanders in the
Other World among his Holy Mountains. And
when he is found there by a young hero Ilya,
the tragic fate of the old man is confirmed.
Finally, he tries to eliminate the young hero
by a last, desperate attempt to prevent his fate:
he tries to kill Ilya by way of a deadly overdose
of his powers or by some other malevolent
trick. But he can never succeed, because the
final victory and invigoration of the young
hero is predestined and inevitable. The
narrative deals with the inevitability of the fact
that
old is replaced by
new,
inertia is surpassed
by
mobility,
weariness is beaten by
energy, and
age exceeded by
youth.
This narrative as a story with mythical
potential that could have – in my opinion –
worked as a cognitive simulation for dealing
with the neuralgical social and psychological
situations of parental succession. Very
important in this respect is the analysed
‘pattern of the reversed effect’ – the narrative
situation in which a character performs an
action with a certain intention or purpose, but