Character for Leadership: The Role of Personal Characteristics

Leadership Theories 
Leadership studies during the past 20 years have been dominated by the 
paradigm of transformational leadership (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). 
Transformational leadership involves a relationship between a leader and followers 
that moves beyond an exchange for services or rewards (i.e., transactional 
leadership). Such a relationship is one in which leaders exercise behaviors that raise 
the values and ethical standards of followers to new levels (Burns, 1978, 2003). 
Transformational Leadership 
Burns (1978) identified transforming (transformational) leadership as that 
which occurs “when one or more persons 
engage
with others in such a way that 
leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality” 
(p. 20). In fact, the concept of character seems to be implicit in transformational 
leadership theory. Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) argued that only those with moral 
character can enact authentic transformational leadership. In reality, all others, 
while effective as leaders according to some external standards, are counterfeits and 
should not be considered truly transformational. 
Transformational leadership theory implies the significance of the leader’s 
character toward the practice of authentic transformational leadership. Yet, many 
theories of transformational leadership continue to promote effective leadership 
simply as that which occurs when leaders display behaviors that empower and 
motivate followers beyond a pure exchange relationship (transactional leadership). 
Nonetheless, transformational leadership theory does not explicitly include 

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Character for Leadership 
5 
 
character as a component in the foundation, conceptualization, and 
operationalization of the theory. 
Visionary Leadership Theory 
One theory of leadership that incorporates both transformational leadership 
behaviors and stresses the importance of the underlying characteristics or motives 
of the leader is that of visionary leadership theory (VLT; Sashkin & Rosenbach, 
1996; Sashkin & Sashkin, 2002). In contrast to other views of transformational 
leadership, VLT implies that the underlying characteristics of the leader produce 
effective leadership behaviors and, therefore, external attributions by followers of 
effective leadership. 
Though not called by the same name, VLT is consistent with the level 5 
leaders identified by Collins (2001a, 2001b) who exhibit both humility and 
determination. Such leaders have a proper perspective of both power and their own 
drive to succeed. These two components—humility and will—are personal 
characteristics of the leader. Consistent with this perspective, and in line with the 
work of others (McClelland, 1975), Sashkin and Sashkin (2002) referred to these 
underlying characteristics of the leader as character. But, what is meant by the use 
of the term 
character
?