Etan-main text

Science policies in the European Union
However, there is an important issue here in that in the name of equal
treatment, women tend to be treated the same as men, rather than equal
to them.  This may sound pedantic! The crucial point is that men are taken
as the norm: women are expected to behave like them and to have the same
characteristics and life pattern.  This point is illustrated in the cartoon.
Women and men are not the same however.  Stereotypical images of
scientists tend to be of men (see Chapter 6).  Science and scientists have a
‘gendered’ identity in the popular imagination.
Source: Academy of Finland (1998)
Women and men are assumed to have different roles in the public and
private spheres.  These stereotypes influence assumptions about men and
women and the appropriateness of roles they may wish to take up.  In this
context, science, technology and engineering are ‘gendered’ subjects.  It is
therefore important to recognise the extent to which the policy goal
(which tends in any case to fall short of the reality) of treating women the
same as men, in effect, advantages men.  Hence, it is necessary to identify
the ways and means by which current systems and structures indirectly
discriminate against women.  The privileging of unbroken careers in
promotion rounds is an example of such discrimination: the assumption is
made that applicants will not have their careers interrupted by child-
bearing, so ‘merit’ becomes conflated with ‘experience’ which is read off
from number of years’ service.  Employers need to recognise that many male
and female employees will have family responsibilities.
Equal treatment is a complex issue. At times, treating men and women the
same can be discriminatory! For example, ignoring career breaks in
appointments. At other times, treating men and women differently can be
discriminatory. Sometimes it is necessary to act in a gender-neutral way,
sometimes it is necessary to make a gender distinction. Crude approaches to
equal treatment can backfire.
Positive action
Equal treatment does not produce equal outcome.  As a consequence a raft
of special measures have been introduced in most Member States to address
the disadvantages experienced by women.  In the well-worn clichés, they
are designed to create a level playing field, or untie the hand behind
women’s backs.  They are intended to address women’s disadvantages so that
Figure 3.1: Persons invited to the post of professor in Finland (1991-95)
Invited chairs
The practice of inviting persons
to take on professorships has
clearly become more common
in the past few years.  Whereas
in the early 1990s less than 20
per cent of professors were
appointed by invitation, by 1996
the proportion had risen to
half.
Academy of Finland (1998) Women  in
Academia: Report of the Working Group
appointed by the Academy of Finland
EDITA: Academy of Finland, p 18)
Reproducing the status quo
The majority of the rectors,
deans and professors are men,
the members of the foundation
boards are mostly men. Most of
the opponents and experts are
men, this creates an image that
the successful academic is a
man.  The decisions on what
constitutes important,
innovative research, what is
worth sponsoring and
developing, and which teams
have a future are made by men.
As a result, sponsorship is given
according to gender-neutral
results to teams that were good,
or the researchers of the future
are chosen according to male
values.
Academy of Finland (1998) Women in
Academia: Report of the Working Group
appointed by the Academy of Finland
EDITA: Academy of Finland, p 34 (from
a survey participant)
60
70
50
40
30
20
10
0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Men
Women
Numbers invited
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they can compete more effectively.  While they are not always effective, and
can attract backlash, some modest positive action measures can make a
crucial difference.  Such measures include projects designed to make science,
technology and engineering more attractive to girls (see Chapter 6);
women-only education and training courses; special encouragement to
women to apply or the ring fencing of small numbers of opportunities or
posts.
What can be done?
The give-away is that few of the women who make it to professor have children.  As
with high-flyers in many professions, the crucial breaks tend to come when people are
in their thirties. Promotion depends heavily on publications.  Anyone who has taken
time out in these years – most of them women – risks being at a disadvantage.
Overcoming this will mean taking trouble to encourage women to apply, taking careful
account of the quality rather than the quantity of publications, and not penalising people
who take longer to reach the professorial threshold.  It can be done if people have the
will. But have they?
Editorial in The Times Higher Education Supplement, 28
th
 May 1999
Affirmative action can go wrong
An affirmative action programme adopted by the University of Amsterdam in 1988
focused on the recruitment of academic personnel. It was decided that women with
sufficient (instead of equal) qualifications should be appointed to posts. The programme
completely failed. A detailed analysis of five widely discussed and (in)famous
appointment cases (conducted on the order of the Ministry of Social Affairs) found that
the affirmative action measure proved to be disadvantageous to women. Quality, in the
eyes of the scientists (and of opponents of such measures in general) was defined in
terms of gender: either you are a woman - or you are good.
The University of Amsterdam gave up this programme (though formally it still exists)
and instead came up with new measures to promote women in academia for which
resources were earmarked  (see Other Measures).
Examples of positive action measures include:
Fellowship programmes
•
The Dorothy Hodgkin Fellowship Programme especially encouraged
women to apply.  Forty-five of the 48 awards made between 1995 and
1999 were given to women (for further details see Chapter 4).
Starting faculty positions
•
In Germany, in 1999, the Hermann von Helmholtz Association of
German Research Centres provided a framework in which their
institutes can choose to create up to 100 additional positions from their
running budgets to be used mainly for women in science.  Using just
such funds, the Research Centre Jülich established a tenure track
programme for women.  Beginning in 1999, each year, three female
scientists will be offered a group leader position with a fixed two-year
contract.  In the subsequent consolidation phase, permanent contracts
will be offered.
•
The aim of the C1/C2 Programme of the Berlin Senate is to provide 60
of these faculty positions for women.
•
In the Netherlands, the Organisation for Scientific Research launched
the ASPASIA-Programme. Under this Programme, female assistant
professors (junior lecturers) can apply for earmarked research funds.
Quality and fairness in scientific professions
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