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[Eliot] is speaking not only for a personal distress, but for the starvation of a
whole civilization - for people grinding at barren office-routine in the cells of
gigantic cities, drying up their soul in eternal toil whose products never bring
them profit, where their pleasures are so vulgar and so feeble that they are
almost sadder than their pains.111
As the twenties progressed and the politics of the thirties loomed larger, The Waste
Land was no longer seen as a dystopian, fragmentary recoil to the horrors of post-war
life. As new writers and intellectuals sought to make sense of the ‘immense panorama
of futility and anarchy which is contemporary history’ (to use Eliot’s words) Eliot’s
poem became a battle ground for the competing ideological systems that would seek
11*}
to make the futility and anarchy intelligible.
It is unsurprising that those critics who
sought to make The Waste Land coherent and narratively sensible were all exponents
of these newly appealing political systems. Edmund Wilson, the first critic to see a
sense of coherence in Eliot’s poem, was a liberal Marxist; Leavis, who codified later
Weston-centric readings of The Waste Land, was one of the great system-builders of
the day, the exponent of the Life Force; Brooks, the most systematic of all Eliot’s
explicators, was a reactionary conservative Christian. Eliot himself found spiritual
solace in the Anglo-Catholic wing of the Church of England and political solace in
right-wing reactionism.
Whether Marxist, conservative or Christian reactionary, the interpreters of The
Waste Land were as influential upon later writers as Eliot himself. Indeed, for many
readers, The Waste Land became virtually synonymous with From Ritual to Romance;
while writers like Mary Butts, who self-consciously reworked The Waste Land in her
novel Armed with Madness (1928), seemed to have understood Eliot’s work as wholly
centred on the Westonian Grail. Nonetheless, although The Waste Land became, in
the hands of its explicators, the most influential of the ‘Grail’ texts of the twentieth
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century, it was not the only influence on other writers who would rewrite the story of
the sacred vessel.
‘The very spring of our culture’: the Grail in later interwar fiction
For Eliot the Grail story was a dead end.* None of his later work, written after his
conversion to Anglo-Catholicism, expressed any interest in the Grail or to related
motifs or narratives. Yet Eliot became, in many ways, the Tennyson of his generation,
his influence over later writers being almost equal to that of his Victorian predecessor.
So imitated was Eliot’s The Waste Land that, as Brian Howard noted, ‘[i]t became
such a plague that the moment the eye encountered, in a newly arrived poem, the
words “stone”, “dust” or “dry” one reached for the waste-paper basket’.^113 Most of
these forgotten or destroyed works were unconcerned with the waste land as an
Arthurian motif and so do not concern us here; nor do the great American novels
which also derived much of their symbolism from Eliot’s poem - among them
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925), Hemmingway’s The Sun Also Rises (1926),
Faulkner’s Soldier’s Pay (1925) and Steinbeck’s The Winter o f Our Discontent
(1961).114
In Britain, those who continued to produce literature which consciously
derived its narratives, symbols or motifs from the Grail story wrote in the shadow of
The Waste Land and its critics who interpreted the text as a latter-day Grail-romance.
* Tennyson, however, remained a lasting influence on Eliot’s poetry. The Four Quartets (1943) are
particularly redolent of Tennyson’s verse, especially In Memoriam (1850). Eliot borrowed some of his
most important symbols from Tennyson, such as ‘the figured leaf (‘Burnt Norton’, II" 1. 11; In
Memoriam, XLIII, 1. 11). He derived whole passages from his predecessor’s work (cf. Norton’, II, 11. 1-
15, and ‘Maud’, 11. 102-7, 571-98). And in his use of abstract theological discourse, Tennyson’s similar
employment in In Memoriam seems to have been an influential model for Eliot while composing his
own reflections on mortality, eternity and the passing of time.
+ Brian Howard was the basis for Anthony Blanche in Evelyn Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited (1944).
Blanche, a homosexual aesthete, recites The Waste Land during his undergraduate days at Oxford,
while standing on a balcony with a megaphone: “7, Tiresias, have foresuffered all,” he sobbed to them
from the Venetian arches’ while the undergraduate ‘throng was on its way to the river’ (34).
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Responses to Eliot’s agnostic, sterile and calamitous text were varied. Some extended
the assimilation of Weston’s theories into contemporary literature, or sought to
reconcile the Victorian and modem versions of the story. Others responded to the
non-Christian emphasis that Weston and Eliot had placed upon the myth by asserting
a virulent Christian tradition, which perceived the Grail as a channel to mystic
experience. But in the main authors reflected the conflict between the competing
theories surrounding the Grail (Ritualist, Christian, Celtic, Pagan). The ambivalence
of the Grail became its chief attraction for many writers; authors including Mary
Butts, John Cowper Powys and Naomi Mitchison all utilised the Grail as a powerful
symbol of contemporary social uncertainties and anxieties. By the end of the 1920s,
despite Eliot’s indebtedness to the waste land of the Idylls, Tennyson’s paradigm
would appear stripped of all cultural currency.
The Waste Land was not the only text published in 1922 which was concerned
with the Grail story. A hostile attack on contemporary materialism, as well as a
refutation of the Pagan-Ritual accounts of the origins of the Grail, Arthur Machen’s
The Secret Glory was first written in 1913, but it was only when the author was
enjoying a popular revival was he able to publish it. Set in a roughly contemporary
environment, Machen’s novel tells the story of Ambrose Meyrick, ‘a miserable little
humbug’ from South Wales, who suffers various torments at his public school,
Lupton.115 He inherits the Grail from its aged Welsh keeper midway through the
novel, before avenging himself on his former tormentors and travelling to the Holy
Land where he is crucified, an event which brings him closer to the Grail. The Grail is
here an ancient relic of Celtic Christianity which has the power to transport the holy to
mystical realms. The Celtic basis of the Grail owes less to the scholarly research of
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