Japanese children’s perspectives on the

Participants for a pilot study are as followed;
Participant 1; a girl, 14 years old

Participant 2; a girl, 14 years old

Participant 3; a boy, 14 years old

Semi-structured interviews were conducted after school where each interview took approximately 30-45mins in the computer room of the school. The participants were asked twenty one questions in total, which covered five areas; 1) the reasons why they choose to be a peer supporter, 2) the benefits of being a peer supporter, 3) their difficulties, 4) how to overcome their difficulties, and 5) their views about supervision (see the appendix 9 for the details of the interview questions).

After the interviews, the contents of the questions and interview skills were modified for the main study’s interviewing. Firstly, several questions were added, which covered peer supporters’ views about peer support activities, especially about school summits. This is because, through the pilot interviews, all the participants strongly mentioned the effectiveness and usefulness of school summits as a key scheme in order to promote the peer support activities. Peer supporters’ comments were are as follows;

Participant 1;

“In the summit, I could learn something I have never thought before. The summit gave me a good opportunity to deepen my thoughts and to learn new ideas……………..We can explain other school’s activities as examples, and persuade teachers to allow us to do activities. Teachers can understand what we talk about”.

Participant 2;

“I really enjoyed the school summit. The summit gave me opportunities to know other school’s activities too. It really helped me to conduct peer support activities in our school…..if we start doing new activities, we sometimes grow uneasy. But if we knew the other school did the similar activities, it really helps us to eliminate the sense of unease”.

Participant 3;

“I believe if we really want to improve our school’s activities, we definitely need to exchange the information with other schools”.

These implied that the school summits seemed to play a critical role to promote their peer support activities in terms of peer supporters’ views. This meant that the questions relating to the school summits seem to facilitate the peer supporter to share their lived experiences, which cover the core ideas and important views of pupils. Secondary, the author was able to practice the use of semi-structured interviews. In terms of its nature, semi-structured interviews highlight that the ordering of questions is less important, and the interview can follow the respondent’s interests or concerns. Also, the author improved his interview skills, especially his way of active listening. For example, one of the participants struggled to respond to questions and regularly paused during conversation. This reminded the author to carefully and patiently listen to their response and give them plenty of time to talk. The pilot study gave the author opportunities to experience how to follow and organise the questions, depending on the participants’ responses. In summary, the pilot study provided some feedback on the necessary amendments which would improve the interview questions and skills before the main study.
3.10 Interviews (for main study)

The author sought to engage pupils to actively take action as peer supporters in the research process in order to explore their experiences of being peer supporters in their own words. Semi-structured interviewing depends upon the rapport established between interviewer and interviewee (Willig, 2008). Therefore, prior to the interviews the author joined some of the peer supporting activities (e.g. greeting campaign, group games, and recreational activities) in the interviewees’ school. Eventually these shared experiences of working with pupils did bring several benefits to the researcher at the stage of the interview process.

The first benefit was the creation of good relationships between the researcher and participants (peer supporters), which facilitated peer supporters to disclose their feelings and thoughts to the author. In terms of the way of speaking and attitudes, it was obvious that peer supporters regarded the researcher as their friend, rather than an adult who is at the teacher’s side. Thus, peer supporters seemed to mention their views without hesitation, and more importantly shared negative comments on teachers and their friends to the author. The other benefit is that the improvement of the researcher’s understanding of peer supporters’ views. Through the shared experiences of doing activities and chatting with them, the researcher got to know their views, attitudes and the way of thinking. This helped the researcher to understand the meanings of their comments all the way through the interviews, allowing the researcher to give response to make the conversation go smoothly.
The main one-to-one semi-structured interviews were conducted in the beginning of the April 2014, which was 9 weeks after the researcher joined the peer support activities. The venue of the interviews was the computer room of the school, where others cannot hear the participants speaking in the interviews. Each interview took 30 to 60 minutes, and was digitally recorded. Before starting the interviews, all participants were orally given a brief explanation about the current research. This includes their rights of withdrawing from the study. It took 4 days to complete 14 interviews (7 males and 7 females), where 2-3 interviews were conducted each day. After the interviews, each participant was given a UK scenery postcard as a token of gratitude for their time.
3.11 Transcript, data analysis and NVivo

After the interviews, the transcripts in Japanese were formed. Although there are technical guidelines, forming the transcription remains a time consuming process. Verbatim transcripts of 14 interviewees (peer supporters) were formed within 2 months. The data analysis was based on Japanese transcripts by thematic analysis, then these were translated into English by the author. In short, the data analysis was based on original data (Japanese transcripts), which allowed the researcher to access rich data and examine it in depth by looking at patterns in each interview. This meant it was important not to lose any information through the process of the translation work from Japanese to English. However, through the analysis process, all Japanese transcripts were translated into English, thus my supervisors (Native English speakers) managed to read and check the process of coding. This means both full English and Japanese transcripts (14 participants’ interview data) are available for the supervisors to read.

Currently there is an increasing tendency of proportion of empirical and analytic work in many languages internationally (Nikander, 2008), and it is strongly suggested that the researchers who are not native English speakers conduct analysis on data in their mother tongue. Since, in the present study, the research participants and the researcher used Japanese as the first language, analysis was based on the Japanese transcripts, which provided the researcher with advantages in his analysis process. Following analysis, all the transcripts were translated into English by the author, who has experience of working as a professional translator. These English transcripts were also checked by another professional translator.

NVivo (version 10) software was used to analyse the data. NVivo is one of the leading types of software used for qualitative research, and is designed to provide a coding system as well as a data managing system. NVivo has tools for recording and linking ideas in many ways, and this helps the researcher to explore patterns in the data and responses (Richards, 1999). As a result, the researcher was able to import rich data (documents) into NVivo’s database, allowing him to create a database of responses in NVivo, edit code, search the responses and find the frequency of the usage of each coding.

3.12 Ethical consideration
“Researchers need to ensure that the research they are planning is ethical in essence, as well as that detailed aspects of the procedure do not raise any specific ethical guidelines such as those produced by the British Psychological Society and the American Psychological Association” (Parry & Watts, 1996).
Generally modern research ethics may be traced back to the Nuremberg code after the World War II, and this has been incorporated into many codes governing the various research fields. Now principles of research ethos, derived largely from Western philosophical thought, are spreading across the world. According to Tsuchiya (2002), in Japan, there are at least three negative characteristics on the research ethics; 1) research ethics is hardly regarded as a matter of ‘human experimentation’, 2) guiding principles for human research are not explored on the basis of historical reflections, and 3) there is little discussion on ethics of behavioural research. This may imply Japanese ethical standard are weak in comparison with Western one. While most of the terrible and critical issues of research come from the medical field, unethical research in the social sciences can also result in extreme harm (Naughton et al, 2001). Children are often described as victims of research, who belong to socially powerless groups, and in danger of deprivation of benefits. This is because researchers are genuinely trying to establish important data, which often make researchers think lightly of ethical consideration. In short, the benefit to research is elevated above the benefit to the children. I had considered using the peer supporters as peer researchers but unfortunately the head teacher would not give permission for this. (In fact, this would be a very radical approach in Japan). Although in this study, data collection took place in Japan, in order to carry out this research in an ethical manner, some Western research ethical guidelines were employed, such as Code of Conduct Ethical Principles and Guidelines (the British Psychological Society, 2009). Furthermore, the researcher was bound by the code of ethics of the University of Surrey.
3.12.1 Informed consent

Informed consent is regarded as the first key to reinforce the ethical manner in the research. Generally the following contents are required:

* The nature of the research

* Exactly what will be expected

* Any possible risks of the research

* That they can withdraw from the research at any stage and withdraw any

unprocessed data.

(Naughton et al, 2001).

The contents or subject need to be told in words children can understand. In the present research, consent to participants were sent at two levels, from the head teacher on behalf of the school staff, and from the pupils (peer supporters). In order to explain what is going on in my research and its procedure clearly, at first, the author contacted the head teacher of the junior high school. The details of the research were given to the head teacher by oral expression and the covering letter, then, the offer was admitted. After gaining the permission from the head teacher, the author gave pupils an explanation about this research before conducting the interviews. The researcher asked the peer supporters if it would be acceptable to take photographs of them as they engaged in their peer support work. Without exception they all agreed. The head teacher also agreed. Due to time constraints, parents were not asked for their permission, although this is normal procedure in Japan. However, for ethical reasons, none of these photographs are reproduced in this thesis.

3.12.2 Minimization of potential harm/deprivation of benefits

Harms and risks in research on professionals includes damage to peer relations, workplace relations, loss of jobs, loss of reputation and legal risks following these (Naughton et al, 2001). Since the participants (peer supporters) were current junior high school pupils, who often make efforts for anti-bullying campaign, they may worry about possible effects, such as the stronger returns of bullying, because of the explanation given to the author. Participants might have painful experience because of peer support activities, and the author needed to consider their right to withdraw from the research at any time. Also the participants were allowed to have a choice over being interviewed or not.

3.12.3 Confidentiality and protection of privacy

It is an essential part of ethical issues to maintain confidentiality about participants (pupils) and their family. Generally the following procedures are conducted to keep the data confidential;

*Coding of data and keeping the key to the code separate from the data.

*Keeping data in secure, locked storage.

*Ensuring that only those researchers authorised by the appropriate ethics committee

have access to the data.

*Ensuring that reports, articles and conference papers do not contain identifying

material.

(Naughton et al, 2001).

The number of the participants were small (n=14) from peer supporters, and this may increase risk of children being identified from the research process. Thus, the present research carefully took into consideration confidentiality in the research. However, in the event that any information given by a pupil raised concerns (e.g. someone is at risk of harm or involved in fatal issues), the author decide that it is my responsibility to support the pupil in telling a third party. For example, if a pupils’ drug addiction became known thought the interviews, the author would contact the expert without asking pupils’ permission. Therefore, the researcher should point out to participants, in advance of their giving consent, where there are legal limits to keeping matters confidential. In terms of reporting the findings, the author also assured the pupils of their anonymity such that any information provided would not be individually identifiable as theirs. Participants were reminded of their rights to confidentiality and anonymity at the start of the interviews.

CHAPTER 4

Study results

4.1 Overview

This chapter presents the analysis of the data collected from 14 peer supporters’ interviews. Five super-ordinate themes and a numbers of sub-themes emerged from the findings (see Figure 4.1). These findings explain the detailed nature of Japanese peer supporters from their perspective as well as critiquing this approach in Japan. The details of the Super-ordinate and sub-themes are presented in the following sections.

Figure 4.1: Super-ordinate & Sub-themes

Disconnection between training and practice *person-centred approach vs. speaking in front of others *Group activities vs. one-to-one peer support *Lack of empathy and judgemental attitudes *Disapproval of emotional problems

Perceived generation gap *Teachers’ views vs. pupils’ views * Pupils’ closeness and Teachers’ blindness *Friendships among pupils and negative attitudes toward teachers.

Self-improvement *Overcoming own weakness *Improving own life *Dealing with Pressure *Dealing with Time management

Cultural mismatch *Aims to create a supportive environment *Believing other pupils’ potentials

The following list summarises the characteristics of the peer supporters interviewed. To protect participants’ confidentiality, all names have been changed into assumed names.

Participant 1 (girl, 14 years old)… Lucy Participant 2 (girl, 14 years old)… Ellie Participant 3 (girl, 14 years old)… Helen Participant 4 (girl, 14 years old)… Michelle Participant 5 (girl, 14 years old)… Sally Participant 6 (girl, 13 years old)… Cathy Participant 7 (girl, 14 years old)… Natalie

Participant 8 (boy, 13 years old)... Ken Participant 9 (boy, 14 years old)… John Participant 10 (boy, 14 years old)… Dan Participant 11 (boy, 13 years old)…Alex Participant 12 (boy, 13 years old)… Ben Participant 13 (boy, 14 years old)… Paul Participant 14 (boy, 13 years old) Graham

4.2 Disconnection between training and practice

The first theme is “Disconnection between training and practice”. Through the analysis, some aspects and the nature of peer supporters were highlighted, which showed there were some gaps and disconnections between peer supporters’ actual activities and their preparatory training sessions. The peer supporters described their attitudes and roles as peer supporters in their school, however it appeared that their interpretations of the training and their experiences as a peer supporter were far from the person-centred approach delivered within the JPSA training. The sub-themes are presented below.

4.2.1 Person-centre approach vs. speaking in front of others

Interestingly the analysis of the interviews revealed that the peer support activities identified by interviewees seemed to be unrelated to the content of their training. In short, their peer support training sessions were based on the person-centred approach (Rogers’ model), but this was not reflected in their peer support activities, which mainly included the greeting campaign, cleaning activities, volunteering activities (fund-raising activities) and anti-bullying dramas. This was reflective of a citizenship education-based approach to peer support rather than person-centred care. None of the peer supporters mentioned they provided one-to-one support with other pupils (please see the appendix), rather, peer supporters had many opportunities to speak in front of many pupils. For example, peer supporters mentioned they needed to give feedback in front of other pupils as one of peer supporter duties.

“In the last assembly meeting……each assembly, I tried to memorise my manuscript, but when I stood in front of people, I could not remember what I memorised, and spoke too fast…every time….But….in the last assembly, I could speak correctly and slowly! I was very happy about it” (Lucy, p.3)
“Ummmm…….what can I say……well…….we have continuously done the activities. We give a brief report in morning assembly.” (Helen, p.7)
“…As you know, I am very nervous when I speak in front of people at assemblies”.……”As you know, I was watched by more than hundred pupils, so I am so nervous….I worry about……..what should I do if I had a mistake or failed to do..….. I am not good at speaking……I have a slight stammer….” (Michelle, p.3)

“Well….we give feedback of peer support activities in morning assembly. We let other pupils know how peer supporters are doing activities.” (Graham, p.4)

The assemblies were opportunities for peer supporters to give feedback of their peer support activities to other pupils in the school. Most peer supporters were struggling to speak in front of other pupils because of their shyness and nervousness. In addition to the assemblies, peer supporters often needed to speak to others to encourage other pupils to join their peer support activities. Unexpectedly, as mentioned earlier, peer supporters did not mention their one-to-one support experiences.


“Well, other pupils did not consult me much.” (Ken, p.22)

As explained in chapter 2, generally peer supporters were trained to develop their basic counselling skills (i.e. active listening skills). Thus, they were supposed to provide one-to-one support with children who are in distress or have emotional difficulties. However, peer supporters did not mention any experiences of providing one-to-one support and did not demonstrate a person-centred approach with other pupils. Rather their activities seemed to mainly focus on group activities, and their attitudes and activities seemed to have nothing to do with their peer support training. Their actual activities are explained in the following sections.

4.2.2 Group activates vs. one-to-one peer support

Regarding the actual activities, peer supporters mentioned they had various activities in the school; however, these activities were mainly group and whole school activities. In short, peer supporters rarely provided one-to-one support with other pupils.

Their activities were often related to their volunteer activities and social skill training, where peer supporters were responsible for leading their activities.

“Generally, class rooms were messy with waste papers. When we had a campus clean-up campaign, pupils kept the class rooms very clean and tidy. After the campaign, the class rooms remain as clean. (Alex, p.3)

“Also, many (pupils) join volunteer activities.” “Cleaning up in the local park, and cleaning up outside the school. At first, only two or three pupils attended, but it increased to around 8 pupils.” (Alex, p.4)

“Last year, when I was taking lead of a clean-up campaign, everyone did not listen to what I was saying. I did not like this experience.” (Sally.p.17)

“I believe our cleaning campaign was held to contribute to the local area which supports us. We do cleaning in the school, because we make a mess in our school. So we need to take responsibility for it. Probably, many pupils feel the same, thus they would like to join the cleaning.” (Ken.p.5)

When I encouraged all pupils to join a cleaning activity, half of them joined the cleaning activity. However, the other half of pupils did not join at all. Probably, if I ask pupils individually to join the activity, these pupils would join it…….I think. (Graham, p5)

One of the regular activities was cleaning activities. Since this activity was a part of volunteer activities, peer supporters encouraged other pupils to join the activities. In a sense, rather than individually providing one-to-one support with others, peer supporters made efforts to involve other pupils into the activities and peer supporters themselves cleaned the local areas and school.

Also, as another example of volunteer activities, peer supporters took the lead for fund-raising activities. Especially, since the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred in 2011, as a part of peer support activities, peer supporters often took the lead for it.

　

“Also, pupils supported the fund-raising activity. Then, we could send some money to victims of earthquake and tsunami of 2011. Thus I think peer support activities gave good influences to the whole school.” (Paul, p.4.)

“Few months ago, we had the fund-raising activity for the great east Japan earthquake in the school. We had collected a lot of money from pupils more than we expected, and I was so surprised about it. Then at the assembly, we announced this information. I believe many pupils make efforts for a fund-raising activity and eventually we could have a lot of money. I felt many pupils feel sympathy towards victims of the great east Japan earthquake and pupils took actions to support them. I felt pupils’ compassion……” (Michelle, p.5)

It was clear that peer supporters took the lead for the fund-raising activities, and in a sense, peer supporters played a role as group leader rather than playing a role to give one-to-one support to other pupils. In addition to volunteer activities, peer supporters organised greeting campaigns, which encouraged other pupils to say “good morning” to others in the morning. In this case, peer supporters also energetically took the lead in the activity.

“When I greet pupils, they reply to me as well. Thus everyone become brighter.” “When I said “good morning” to other pupils, some pupils bowed to me, but other pupils ignored me…..” “Ahhh….yes, little by little. At the beginning, when I said “good morning” to them, many pupils ignored me. But gradually pupils started to bow to me, and also said “good morning” in a small voice. They are getting better, I think” (Paul.p.4)

During the greeting campaign, peer supporters greeted pupils, and the pupils used to reply to them too. (Dan, p 3)

In fact, peer supporters stood in front of the school gate in the morning, to greet other pupils. It is clear the peer supporters acted as group leaders to encourage others to greet each other. Also peer supporters often mentioned school summits as another activity and made efforts to carry out their school summits. As expected, the school summits provided opportunities for peer supporters to discuss and give their presentations about how to improve school ethos and pupils’ issues.

Well…. because of the school summits, I can understand our school’s situation objectively. I can see good points and bad points about our own school. (Graham, p19)

“Sometimes the school summits are carried out on Sunday. But the summits are conducted for the sake of pupils, thus this is not a difficulty at all.” (Dan.p.13)

“I was able speak to others…….also at the school summits, I was able to speak in front of people.” (Cathy, p17)

From the interview data, most peer support activities, which include school summits, fund-raising activities, greeting campaign and cleaning activities, provided opportunities for peer supporters to communicate with other pupils. However, peer supporters rarely had the opportunity to give one-to-one support to other pupils.