502 F. Gaspani – Gendered Organizations. The Case of Italian
Astrophysics
I may feel satisfied when I write an article, but I’m happy for other
things… If I have to give up astronomy to have a family I wouldn’t
have problems... of course, I would be disappointed but I think I
have the “feminine” spirit of sacrifice... (W4, L4).
The willingness to perform an act of deprivation in the professional
sphere in order to devote to the role of wife and mother seems to represent a
potentially constitutive act of the identity of the women interviewees. These
“sacrifices” go hand in hand with the traditionalist and familistic Italian
culture, which tends to take for granted, even in the laws and social policies,
that the management of most of the household tasks is women’s business.
On the contrary, it is very rare for men to limit or interrupt their work
commitments. When the trade-off between professional life and household
responsibilities interest fathers, men have to deal with an unsympathetic
social context: the work environment disapprove requests for leave or
special permissions by men, considered as evidence of weak attachment to
the profession. In fact, family-oriented fathers have not yet been fully
legitimated in the social and cultural codes, also because of women
acceptance.
I have two children and at times I had to put barriers to work, not to
have my private life invaded... but it was held against me. I was
told that I should be clearer and decide if I wanted to take care of
my children or of my job... the most surprising thing was that it was
always emphasized by women. (M8, L3).
A stereotyped conception of gender roles is strong among the
interviewees. In women’s interviews, we can appreciate negative
representations of themselves and of their own gender-belonging, resulting
from the comparison with the dominant (high-status) group – the reference
point in relation to which the other group is defined. In case of stereotypical
behaviour, the gender victim of it is devalued and the responsibility of the
unfair treatment suffered is attributed to it.
Géneros – Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 3(3) 503
Every woman will certainly say, "We need more women in
decision-making positions!", but then she is not so sure... maybe
for cultural issues or because, as some people say, women are
really less suited to decision-making positions. (W1, L3).
The dominant norms of organizational culture conflict with, or at least
severely undervalue, the norms and expectations associated with “being a
woman”. Stereotypes linked to roles place men and women in a sort of
“natural” (supported, or at least tolerated) order, and they play a fundamental
role in maintaining power imbalances between genders
(Camussi &
Leccardi, 2005)
. In addition, the working path of the majority of women-
astrophysics interviewed is marked by the recognition of their shortcomings
and failings, without claiming what it is not perceived as deserved.
I do not know if the scientific environment values the contribution
of women... I have produced less than a man of my age
5
. (W8, L3).
I can’t stand competitiveness, and I have never been able to get a
political-organizational mindset, and this is not a positive thing... it
is a fault. (W2, L1).
The focus on individual accountability and the interconnections between
self-affirmation and recognition of the “others” qualify many women-
astrophysics’ attitudes more than men’s. Women’s emphasis on their own
limitations refer to the belonging (or not) to the scientific context and to the
dynamics that take shape in it. The process of identity construction, in fact,
is in part linked to the socio-cultural dimension of the context in which the
individual is placed
(Melucci, 1991)
, that is the framework of resources and
constraints that nourish and define the meanings of that context and manage
its terms and conditions, purposes and expectations.
The potentiality of the ambivalence related to the female gender often
introduces the need for a (difficult) harmony of roles and identities. In fact,
women-scientists’ identity is also defined in relation to the allocation of
values and priorities to different activities. The asymmetric distribution of
household and care responsibilities, the gendered nature of scientific
organizations, the persistence of the ideal-type of the male breadwinner and
504 F. Gaspani – Gendered Organizations. The Case of Italian
Astrophysics
the deficit in the provision of assistance services, have an impact on
women’s professional chances. These aspects may lead the women-scientists
interviewed to quite homogeneously define themselves as low-status group –
i.e. the identity that is assigned by comparison with the male-group
benchmark and that is experienced within male-dominated contexts – and
the researcher to perceive the absence of intra-gender differences, without
finding an identity construction potentially unhitched from the traditional
gender role. Women-scientists’ identity struggles to establish itself in the
present, but it can try to project itself into the future of female subjects who
choose to work to assert it.
The hard recognition of women-scientists’ role and their persistent difficulty
in reaching senior positions in research are central issues for national and
supra-national institutions and authorities
(European Commission, 2000)
,
also regarding the specific sector of astrophysics
(IAU, 2009; INAF, 2010b)
.
Legislative progress in the field of equal opportunities and the achievement
of formal equality have not yet eliminate discriminations and prejudices
towards female subjects. This situation brings to women’s careers being
“slower” than men’s
(INAF, 2010b)
and to the fact that women gradually
desert the scientific field – the metaphor of the “leaky pipeline”
(European
Commission, 2000, 2002)
.
As observed, within workplaces gender order takes shape from different
interacting factors – such as individual, organizational, interpersonal and
socio-cultural features – and puts women in a position of estrangement in
hierarchically, relationally and symbolically male-dominated contexts. These
considerations point to the issue of citizenship of women in science. To
ensure that women become citizens with full rights in the scientific field,
policy makers should not simply work to reach a balance in the numerical
proportions between genders in scientific organizations or to analyse their
chances of inclusion and participation in a given context. Instead, they must
especially investigate the relationships that both genders have established
with the political and social order of the scientific environment, their
Géneros – Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 3(3) 505
recognition and their gazes on the scientific community. Only by redefining
the mechanisms on which wills, expectations and values of individuals
(women and men) depend, the potential of critique and innovation can be
developed within paths that seem universally established. According to
Schiebinger
(1999, p. 195)
, however, «change will have to happen
simultaneously in many areas», that is the social and cultural dimensions of
everyday reality as a whole – e.g. gender roles and interactions and the
relationship between home life and the profession. Giving a critical visibility
to the hegemonic masculinity of gender relations and practices may
represent a path to change.
Notes
1
In Italy, women attending Ph.D programs in Physics are around 30% of the total and in
Astronomy the gender participation is equal
(Masciadri & Schneider, 2009)
. However, the
presence of women among university research staff is rare (Tot: 14.8%; Researchers: 26.1%;
Associate Professors: 11.7%; Full Professors: 3%) and into the National Institute of
Astrophysics (INAF) women-scientists are about 27% of the total research staff (35% at the
start level, 15% at the top level)
(INAF, 2010b)
.
2
The concept of “double presence” indicates cross-gender experiences and women’s
simultaneous presence – both in the physical and in the symbolic sense – in different and
conflicting spheres of life
(Balbo, 1978)
.
3
Sexual harassments may occur at different levels of gravity and have the purpose or effect of
violating the dignity of a worker through physical, verbal or non-verbal practices.
4
The identitarian process has a social component (the conception a person has of itself as
being a part of a group) and a personal one (the experience of self-reflection – on individual
history, hopes and plans – based on the needs of personal coherence), routinely related to one
another.
5
On this point, it is noted that «factors such as age at promotion, disciplinary fields, number
of publications are only a partial explanation of the gender differences in the career pathways
in science. The main explanatory factor is and remains gender»
(Palomba, 2006, p. 136)
.
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Fabio Gaspani. Dipartimento di Sociologia e Ricerca Sociale.
Università degli Studi di Milano – Bicocca, Italy.
Contact Address: Direct correspondence to the author at Via Bicocca
degli Arcimboldi, 8. 20126 Milano (Italy).
E-mail address:
f.gaspani@campus.unimib.it
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