[
272 ] Notes on Sources
Governments and their influential citizens were in innumerable ways enmeshed
in the varied types of financial, economic, and juridical strands of such interna-
tional transactions. A local war merely meant a short interruption of some of
these, while the interests vested in other transactions that remained permanently
or at least temporarily unaffected formed an overwhelming mass as against those
which might have been resolved to the enemy's disadvantage by the chances of
war. This silent pressure of private interest which permeated the whole life of civi-
lized communities and transcended national boundaries was the invisible main-
stay of international reciprocity, and provided the balance-of-power principle
with effective sanctions, even when it did not take on the organized form of a Con-
cert of Europe or a League of Nations.
B A L A N C E O F P O W E R A S H I S T O R I C A L LAW
Hume, D., "On the Balance of Power,"
Works, Vol. Ill (1854), p. 364. Schuman,
R,
International Politics (1933), p. 55. Toynbee, A. J.,
Study of History, Vol. Ill, p. 302.
Pirenne, H.,
Outline of the History of Europe from the Fall of the Roman Empire to
1600 (England 1939). Barnes-Becker-Becker, onDe Greef, Vol. II, p. 871. Hofmann,
A.,
Das deutsche Land and die deutsche Geschichte (1920). Also Haushofer's Geo-
political School. At the other extreme, Russell, B.,
Power. Lasswell's
Psychopathol-
ogy and Politics; World Politics and Personal Insecurity, and other works. Cf. also
Rostovtzeff,
Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, Ch. 4, Part I.
B A L A N C E O F P O W E R A S P R I N C I P L E A N D S Y S T E M
Mayer, J. P.,
Political Thought (1939), p. 464. Vattel,
Le Droit des gens (1758).
Hershey, A. S.,
Essentials of International Public Law and Organization (1927), pp.
567-69. Oppenheim, L.,
International Law. Heatley, D. P.,
Diplomacy and the
Study of International Relations (1919).
H U N D R E D Y E A R S ' P E A C E
Leathes, "Modern Europe,"
Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, Ch. 1.
Toynbee, A. J.,
Study of History, Vol. IV(C), pp. 142-53. Schuman, F.,
International
Politics, Bk. I, Ch. 2. Clapham, J. H.,
Economic Development of France and Ger-
many, 1815-1914, p. 3. Robbins, L.,
The Great Depression (1934), p. 1. Lippmann, W.,
The Good Society. Cunningham, W.,
Growth of English Industry and Commerce in
Modern Times. Knowles, L. C. A.,
Industrial and Commercial Revolutions in Great
Britain during the Nineteenth Century (1927). Carr, E. H.,
The Twenty Years' Crisis,
2929-2939 (1940). Crossman, R. H. S.,
Government and the Governed (1939), p. 225.
Hawtrey, R. G.,
The Economic Problem (1925), p. 265.
B A G H D A D RAILWAY
The conflict regarded as settled by the British-German agreement of June 15,
1914: Buell, R. L.,
International Relations (1929). Hawtrey, R. G.,
The Economic
Notes on Sources
[273]
Problem (1925). Mowat, R. B.,
The Concert of Europe (1930), p. 313. Stolper, G.,
This
Age of Fable (1942). For the contrary view: Fay, S. B.,
Origins of the World War, p.
312. Feis, H.,
Europe, The World's Banker, 1870-1914 (1930), pp. 335^
CONCERT OF EUROPE
Langer, W. L.,
European Alliances and Alignments (1871-1890) (1931). Sontag,
R. J.,
European Diplomatic History (1871-1932) (1933). Onken, H., "The German
Empire," in
Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII. Mayer, J. P.,
Political Thought
(1939)) P- 464. Mowat, R. B.,
The Concert of Europe (1930), p. 23. Phillips, W. A.,
The
Confederation of Europe, 1914 (2d ed., 1920). Lasswell, H. D.,
Politics, p. 53. Muir, R.,
Nationalism and Internationalism (1917), p. 176. Buell, R. L.,
International Rela-
tion (1929), p. 512.
2. Hundred Years' Peace
1.
The facts. The Great Powers of Europe were at war with one another during
the century 1815 to 1914 only during three short periods: for six months in 1859, six
weeks in 1866, and nine months in 1870-71. The Crimean War, which lasted ex-
actly two years, was of a peripheric and semicolonial character, as historians in-
cluding Clapham, Trevelyan, Toynbee, and Binkley agree. Incidentally, Russian
bonds in the hands of British owners were honored in London during that war.
The basic difference between the nineteenth and previous centuries is that be-
tween occasional general wars and complete absence of general wars. Major-
General Fuller's assertion that there was no year free of war in the nineteenth cen-
tury appears as immaterial. Quincy Wright's comparison of the number of war
years in the various centuries irrespective of the difference between general and
local wars seems to bypass the significant point.
2.
The problem. The cessation of the almost continuous trade wars between
England and France, a fertile source of general wars, stands primarily in need of
explanation. It was connected with two facts in the sphere of economic policy:
(a)
the passing of the old colonial empire, and
(b) the era of free trade which passed
into that of the international gold standard. While war interest fell off rapidly
with the new forms of trade, a positive peace interest emerged in consequence of
the new international currency and credit structure associated with the gold stan-
dard. The interest of whole national economies was now involved in the mainte-
nance of stable currencies and the functioning of the world markets upon which
incomes and employment depended. The traditional expansionism was replaced
by an anti-imperialist trend which was almost general with the Great Powers up
to 1880. (Of this we deal in Chapter 18.)
There seems, however, to have been a hiatus of more than half a century (1815-
80) between the period of trade wars when foreign policy was naturally assumed
to be concerned with the furtherance of gainful business and the later period in
which foreign bondholders' and direct investors' interests were regarded as a legit-
imate concern of foreign secretaries. It was during this hiatus that the doctrine