Political Economy and the Discovery of Society [
121 ]
importance for the history of nineteenth-century thought. Since the
emerging society was no other than the market system, human society
was now in danger of being shifted to foundations utterly foreign to
the moral world of which the body politic hitherto had formed part.
The apparently insoluble problem of pauperism was forcing Malthus
and Ricardo to endorse Townsend's lapse into naturalism.
Burke approached the issue of pauperism squarely from the angle of
public security. Conditions in the West Indies convinced him of the
danger of nurturing a large slave population without any adequate
provision for the safety of the white masters, especially as the Negroes
were often allowed to go armed. Similar considerations, he thought,
applied to the increase of the number of the unemployed at home,
seeing that the government had no police force at its disposal. Al-
though an out-and-out defender of patriarchal traditions, he was a
passionate adherent of economic liberalism, in which he saw also the
answer to the administrative problem of pauperism. Local authorities
were gladly taking advantage of the unexpected demand of the cotton
mills for destitute children whose apprenticing was left to the care of
the parish. Many hundreds were indentured with manufacturers,
often in distant parts of the country. Altogether the new towns devel-
oped a healthy appetite for paupers; factories were even prepared to
pay for the use of the poor. Adults were assigned to any employer who
would take them for their keep; just as they would be billeted out in
turn among the farmers of the parish, in one or another form of the
roundsman system. Farming out was cheaper than the running of
"jails without guilt," as workhouses were sometimes called. From the
administrative angle this meant that the "more persistent and more
minutely detailed authority of the employer"* took the place of the
government's and the parish's enforcement of work.
Clearly, a question of statesmanship was involved. Why should the
poor be made a public charge and their maintenance put on the par-
ish, if ultimately the parish discharged its obligation by farming out
the able-bodied to the capitalist entrepreneurs, who were so eager to
fill their mills with them that they would even spend money to obtain
their services? Did this not clearly indicate that there was also a less ex-
pensive way of compelling the poor to earn their keep than the parish
* Webb, S. and B.,
English Local Government, Vols. VII-IX, "Poor Law History."
[
122 ] The Great Transformation
way? The solution lay in the abolishment of the Elizabethan legislation
without replacing it by any other. No assessment of wages, no relief for
the able-bodied unemployed, but no minimum wages either, nor a
safeguarding of the right to live. Labor should be dealt with as that
which it was, a commodity which must find its price in the market.
The laws of commerce were the laws of nature and consequently the
laws of God. What else was this than an appeal from the weaker magis-
trate to the stronger, from the justice of the peace to the all-powerful
pangs of hunger? To the politician and administrator laissez-faire was
simply a principle of the ensurance of law and order, at minimum cost.
Let the market be given charge of the poor, and things will look after
themselves.
It was precisely on this point that Bentham, the rationalist, agreed
with Burke, the traditionalist. The calculus of pain and pleasure re-
quired that no avoidable pain should be inflicted. If hunger would do
the job, no other penalty was needed. To the question, "What can the
law do relative to subsistence?" Bentham answered, "Nothing, di-
rectly."* Poverty was Nature surviving in society; its physical sanction
was hunger. "The force of the physical sanction being sufficient, the
employment of the political sanction would be superfluous."* All that
was needed was the "scientific and economical" treatment of the
poor.* Bentham was strongly opposed to Pitt's Poor Law Bill, which
would have amounted to an enactment of Speenhamland, as it per-
mitted both outdoor relief and aid-in-wages. Yet Bentham, unlike his
pupils, was at this time no rigid economic liberal, nor was he a demo-
crat. His Industry-Houses were a nightmare of minute utilitarian ad-
ministration enforced by all the chicanery of scientific management.
He maintained that there always would be a need for them as the com-
munity could not quite disinterest itself in the fate of the indigent.
Bentham believed that poverty was part of plenty." In the highest stage
of social prosperity," he said, "the great mass of the citizens will most
probably possess few other resources than their daily labour, and con-
sequently will always be near to indigence...." Hence he recom-
mended that "a regular contribution should be established for the
wants of indigence," though thereby "in
theory want is decreased and
thus industry hit," as he regretfully added, since from the utilitarian
* Bentham, J.
Principles of Civil Code, Ch. 4., Browning, Vol. I, p. 333.
1
Bentham, J.,
ibid.
* Bentham, J.,
Observation on the Poor Bill, 1797.