155
and is also relevant to performance practices.
For research in these areas, splitting the
tradition in two seems a potentially arbitrary
modern
construct
with
a
misleading
terminological implication that there are two,
fundamentally different forms or branches of
the poetry. Linguistic and national boundaries
were clearly permeable and it has never been
shown to what degree either of these have
structured differences in local traditions. On
the other hand, for research with emphasis on
language and text or what is performed, and
especially
research
with
a
diachronic
emphasis, there is a relevance and historical
validity in distinguishing traditions of the North
Finnic language groups. Such a distinction
then provides a frame for considering local and
regional variation according to contacts, even
if the distinction may nevertheless be
misleading in
terms of poetic form per se. The
inference that this distinction validates treating
all other tradition areas as a coherent group is
problematic if only because it homogenizes the
traditions of different branches of Finnic
language each comparable to North Finnic.
This is like saying Old Norse / Scandinavian
forms of Old Germanic poetry constitute a
valid category so Old English, Old High
German and Old Saxon poetries collectively
form a second category. For some research
there can be a practical advantage to using
Kalevala-based terms for North Finnic
traditions,
regilaul as a complementary term
for traditions of Estonia and Setomaa, and
runolaulu/
runolaul/
runosong for all of them
together. Those advantages do not, however,
extend to discussions of the poetic form
per se,
and use of any collective term for non-North-
Finnic traditions remains problematic.
A number of descriptive terms are also
available, and these help to neutralize implicit
thinking according to national, ethnic or
linguistic boundaries by making such qualifi-
cations conscious and explicit specifications
within the broader tradition. Terms relating to
the age of the poetry or identifying it as
heritage carry similar baggage to Kalevala
-
based terms. Adjectives like ‘traditional’, ‘oral’
and ‘folk’ each have their own connotations
although these have been deconstructed to an
extent that they now tend to be viable in the
languages considered. The linguistic designation
‘Finnic’ seems to be neutral while the metrical
descriptions as ‘tetrametric’ and ‘alliterative’
both seem to be generally representative and
neutral. ‘Finnic tetrametric alliterative poetry’
forms a potentially viable term in English, but
the clumsy cascade of syllables limits its
utility, and there remains the unavoidable
problem that alliteration will be inferred as
metrical. ‘Common Finnic tetrameter’ is more
manageable, but not technically without
ambiguity.
There seems to be no simple answer
concerning which term to use when wishing to
refer to this Finnic poetic tradition as a whole.
Nevertheless, the consolidation of discussions
surrounding the different potential terms in the
present review may, perhaps, offer a more
substantial frame of reference for reflecting on
the topic by not only considering their pros and
cons of individual terms, but by looking at
various alternatives together. We might also
observe
that
technical
ambiguities
or
inaccuracies and loads of potentially problematic
connotations come into focus under detailed
scrutiny, but as any phrasal unit becomes
established in terminology, its meaning shifts
from interpretation of its parts as a composition
to a label for what we agree it refers to.
Deconstructing and reconstructing potential
terminology and its historical or other baggage
reshapes the terminology itself. Ultimately, the
question of which term to use in a given
language has less to do with its semantics and
connotations when placed under a magnifying
glass
than with social consensus,
agreed usage
in the relevant discourse environment. A
reality of terminology is that it changes over
time, and it is precisely that we are now in the
midst of such changes, renegotiating terms that
all seem open to question, that we felt the
present discussion was needed.
Notes
1. In German language scholarship, the term
alt-
germanisch [‘old Germanic’] seems to have evolved
in the 19
th
century under the aegis of National
Romanticism, and Eduard Sievers’
Altgermanische
Metrik (1893) [‘Old Germanic Meter’] was probably
a catalyst in its spread. This term became a collective
term referencing a common linguistic-cultural
heritage for medieval and Iron Age Germanic
languages and the people who spoke them. It is now
quite well established. The translation of this term is
widely used in English to collectively reference the
156
meter and poetics, but ‘Old Germanic’ sounds dated
and imprecise; also used are ‘early Germanic’, just
‘Germanic’ or any of these combined with
‘alliterative’, and so forth. Joseph Harris’ recent title
“Old
er Germanic Poetry” (2012, emphasis added) is
symptomatic of a need to reconsider and perhaps
rebuild the relevant terminology.
2. On emic terms in Ingria and Karelia, see Timonen
2004: 86–157, 238–303; Kallio K 2013: 166–172;
Tarkka 2013: 95–102, 156–158; in Estonia, see
Saareste 1955: 28; Oras et al. 2014: 10. No emic terms
have cognates used consistently across all languages.
3. On the historically spread ballad form, see e.g.
Vargyas 1983; Colbert 1986. Referring to a family
of poetic forms through a genre category presents its
own sets of problems which are no less complex, but
they may vary considerably from one such poetic
form to the next and many of those problems are
distinct from issues addressed here.
4. The dominant view is that the poetic form derives
from a common Finnic heritage (see e.g. Korhonen
1987; 1994; Kuusi 1994; Leino 1994; Helimski
1998: 44–45; Rüütel 1998; Siikala 2012: 438–441).
Although some scholars may be sceptical about
construing the age of the poetic form, there are
currently no substantial arguments for a dating after
the breakup of Proto-Finnic.
5. On the diversity of genres and their inter-relations,
see e.g. Kuusi 1994; Krikmann 1997: ch. 2.2; Rüütel
1998–1999; Frog & Stepanova 2011; Tarkka 2013;
Timonen 2004.
6. For example, Oskar Loorits (1932: 91) considered
the Estonian traditions to represent a more archaic
poetic on the implicit basis of an idea of cultural
evolution from less to greater structure; in contrast,
Matti Sadeniemi (1951: 147–149) took the opposite
view that the more regular form of the meter is more
archaic, and that this has changed especially in
Setomaa in relation to historical changes in the
language. The question of reconstruction was also a
question of heritage, and which nation possessed the
more ‘authentic’ poetry.
7. In the terminology of John Miles Foley (e.g. 1990:
96–106, 178–196).
8. This term has become the basis of reference as
viskurilaki [‘winnower’s law’] in Finnish (Kuusi
1952: 242–248) and simplified as
winnowing in
English (Leino 1986: 133–134).
9.
The final syllable sometimes appears as an expletive
or vocable to accommodate some sort of variation,
but
this is rare, especially in epic. Right
justification
is not restricted to metered poetry: all else being
equal, a longer or heavier word will often follow a
lighter one as in expressions like
death and taxes or
rhyme and reason. The difference in kalevalaic poetry
is that word length becomes a more significant
determinant on word order than conventions of syntax,
so word order appears more variable than unmetered
discourse. (See further Sadeniemi 1951: 28–39.)
10. Nigel Fabb (2009: 163) implies that this complex
constraint is unusual generally for poetry.
11.
Description as a ‘broken verse’ is linked to Matti
Sadeniemi’s (1951: 27–39) theory of a mandatory
caesura between the second and third feet of the line
on analogy to Germanic alliterative verse: ‘broken
verses’ have words spanning these positions.
However, such verses are so common in Karelia that
there is no reason to consider a caesura at all (Leino
1986: 133–134; Frog & Stepanova 2011: 201). They
may instead be better viewed as a type of variation
that creates aesthetic tension in performance (e.g.
Niemi 2016: 29–30).
12.
The meter was connected to local forms of speech
(Korhonen 1994; Leino 1994; Sarv 2008a). In spoken
and dictated forms of poems, the words were often
closer to local dialect and, respectively, the lines
could easily be shorter or the periodic structure of
lines might dissolve, whereas in sung performance,
the lines were typically full, their periodic structure
more strict, and linguistic forms more archaic
(Saarinen 1988: 198–199; Lauerma 2004: 24).
13.
Additional differences, such as the percentage of
lines with alliteration and type of alliteration may be
a more incidental outcome of language change, for
example allowing more words with the potential to
alliteration within a line.
14.
Such ethnocentrism in labelling language families
belongs to the era when the term for ‘Indo-European’
in German scholarship was
indogermanisch [‘Indo-
Germanic’]. All Finnic groups have been identified,
at least at the level of terminology, as essentially
‘Finnish’ through the earlier term for Finnic
languages and peoples, ‘Balto-Finnic’ or ‘Baltic
Finnic’ based on Lat.
Fennicus, or simply ‘Baltic
Finnish’, and their equivalents Finnish
itämeren-
suomalainen, and Estonian
läänemeresoomlane
meaning literally ‘Baltic Sea Finnish’ (Fi.
suoma-
lainen, Est.
soomlane [‘Finnish’]). The current
simplified English form
Finnic is possible because it
remains distinct from
Finnish, which is not the case
with Finnish and Estonian terms today.
15.
On
traditional
Finnic
poetry
and
cultural
appropriation, see Wilson 1976; see also Haapoja
2013; Hill 2007; Haapoja et al. 2017; this topic is a
concern of the current Kone Foundation project
“Omistajuus, kieli ja kulttuuriperintö: Kansanrunous-
ideologiat Suomen, Karjalan tasavallan ja Viron
alueilla” [‘Ownership, Language and Cultural
Heritage: Ideologies of Folk Poetry in Finland, the
Republic of Karelia and Estonia’] (PI Eila
Stepanova). Within the framework of Romanticism,
such appropriation was part of the general view that
das Volk preserved parts of an archaic heritage, and
that some ethnic groups preserved this heritage for
others of the same language (= ethnic) family. Such
claims on traditions were thus by no means exclusive
to ‘Finns’: all of the Scandinavian nations laid claim
to the mythology, epics and sagas discovered among
the Icelanders – as indeed did the Germans and even
the British; the common heritage of Germanic
religion was largely appropriated from Iceland.
16.
The anti-Romantic-Nationalist attitude that became
established in the West in the aftermath of World
War II did not penetrate Eastern Europe.
Kalevala is
thus not burdened by this more general discourse in
Russian Karelia or in Russia more generally.