particularly the growth of central bureaucracies encroaching on the autonomy of
local government – and with competition among European states, necessitating
the maintenance of armies, and hence increased direct taxation. Increased
demands on, and extractions from, provinces and their aristocratic
representatives often provoked rebellions.
Plate 10.
A very full depiction of means of exorcism and methods of dealing with a witch and her two
helpers.
In the complex circumstances of the German case, the ill-defined ‘general
crisis’ was refracted in unique and complex ways. A combination of tensions
both within the Holy Roman Empire and among the states of Europe produced a
series of conflicts from 1618 to 1648 which have come to be termed the ‘Thirty
Years War’. These conflicts involved confessional splits within the Empire;
revolts of provincial estates against their territorial ruler; resistance of territorial
princes against Imperial power; and a wider set of conflicts between non-
German states which were fought over German soil and enmeshed with German
conflicts. These included conflicts between Spain and the Dutch, between
Sweden and Poland, and between France and the Habsburgs. In thirty years of
fighting, German economy and society were profoundly affected; and the
settlement which finally emerged, in 1648, set patterns with long-lasting
consequences for German history.
The origins of the Thirty Years War lie partly in unresolved problems left by
the Peace of Augsburg (failure to recognise Calvinists, the ecclesiastical
reservation) and partly in the pattern of subsequent developments. Conflicts had
continued, such as the war of Cologne of 1583–8 which successfully halted the
Protestantisation of ecclesiastical territory. This was particularly important in the
case of Cologne, since it prevented the transformation of a Catholic into a
Protestant electoral vote, which would have opened up the possibility of the
election of a Protestant Emperor. Religious-political parties had formed, and
although on certain issues – such as combating the Turkish threat – princes could
usually transcend confessional differences, the institutions of the Empire were
breaking down. After the death of Charles V, the Habsburg Emperors tended to
focus more narrowly on their own domestic and dynastic concerns than on
Imperial affairs, over which they had to some extent lost control in the age of
confessionalism. The 1608 Imperial Diet collapsed, without either voting taxes
for the Turkish war or resolving religious issues, and the Protestants walked out,
forming the Protestant Union. The following year the Catholic League was
formed, headed by the Jesuit-educated Maximilian of Bavaria. Henceforth the
involvement of these two religious-military forces would turn local disputes into
wider conflicts. This was illustrated by the War of the Jülich-Cleves Succession
(1609–14) over a disputed inheritance. When the ‘possessing princes’ fell out,
one obtained the support of the Catholic League, while the other – John
Sigismund of Brandenburg – converted to Calvinism in 1613 and obtained the
support of the Palatinate, the Netherlands and England.
The outbreak of the Thirty Years War proper is conventionally dated from an
incident known as the ‘defenestration of Prague’ in May 1618 (in conscious
imitation of the defenestration initiating the Hussite rebellion two centuries
earlier). The Bohemian Protestant nobility had been enjoying certain religious
and political freedoms since the 1609 ‘Letter of Majesty’ of the Habsburg
Emperor Rudolf II, who needed aristocratic support in his struggles with his
brother, Matthias. The latter succeeded Rudolf as Emperor in 1612, but remained
childless, occasioning a disputed succession. In 1617 the Jesuit-educated,
militant Catholic Archduke Ferdinand of Austria became King of Bohemia, a
position he coveted since it gave him an electoral vote, and he had aspirations to
become Emperor himself against Spanish claims. Under Ferdinand, energetic
moves were made to reduce the political and religious privileges of the
Bohemian nobility. A large protest meeting in Prague sent delegates with a
petition to the palace. Discussions with Ferdinand’s Deputy Governors,
Martinitz and Slovata, became somewhat stormy, and, followed by their
secretary, they were tipped out of the window (hence ‘defenestration’) by the
protesting Bohemians. (A Catholic account tells us that the Virgin Mary
interceded to carry Martinitz softly to the ground on her cloak, saving him ‘from
all harm despite his corpulent body’; the Protestant version more mundanely
asserts that the fall was broken by landing in a dung heap.) The Bohemian
estates then appealed to Protestants elsewhere to support their cause,
inaugurating the first conflict of the war, the Bohemian Revolt. To their aid came
the Elector Palatine, the Calvinist Frederick V (married to the daughter of King
James I of England), whom the Bohemian estates elected as their king. Known
as the ‘Winter King’, he lasted only a season. Ferdinand, who had been duly
elected Emperor in 1619, mustered a strong Catholic coalition, including
Maximilian of Bavaria as well as Spain and Poland. General Tilly, military chief
of the Catholic League, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Protestants at the 1620
Battle of the White Mountain (just west of Prague) and Frederick had to flee.
The Protestant Bohemian rebels had their estates confiscated, and many of them
lost not only their possessions but also their lives. A substantially new nobility
was installed which would be loyal to the Habsburgs, while some nobles were
reconverted, and strenuous efforts were made to re-Catholicise Bohemia. (In
subsequent decades, Protestantism went underground, making many secret
converts among the peasantry, who would be the focus of intense Jesuit
campaigns in the later seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.)
In what was now effectively a German civil war, struggles moved
northwards, through the Palatinate War, the Lower Saxon War, and north to the
Baltic. Through a series of Catholic military successes, by the late 1620s the
Austrian Habsburgs controlled a broad swathe of German territory, stretching
almost to the shores of the Baltic, and threatened to establish a unitary state. The
upstart Bohemian General Wallenstein was elevated to the rank of prince of the
Empire, being granted the duchy of Mecklenburg and a fine house in Prague as a
reward for his dramatic military successes for the Catholic cause.
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