Plate 11.
The Battle of the White Mountain, 1620.
The increasingly powerful Emperor now sought to remould German affairs
and roll back the Reformation. In the 1629 Edict of Restitution Ferdinand
attempted to counter-reform a number of archbishoprics, bishoprics and cities
which had converted to Protestantism, and to restitute all church properties and
incomes that had been alienated since 1552. Not only did this measure radically
affect the pattern of territorial power; it also constituted a transgression of the
constitution, since it was issued by the Emperor without reference to the Diet or
the princes, and was guaranteed to provoke anger and hostility on all manner of
fronts – including among those Catholic princes who in a belated entry into the
grab for spoils stood to gain less than the Emperor. By now, Ferdinand’s rising
powers as Emperor had aroused the suspicions even of Catholic princes,
including even his most important ally, the Bavarian Duke Maximilian, whose
Catholic League had in any case remained independent of Habsburg control, and
who now demanded a reduction in the size of the Imperial army and the
dismissal of Wallenstein. In 1630 Ferdinand did indeed dismiss Wallenstein (of
whom he had also been suspicious), but did not modify the execution of the
Edict of Restitution. Catholic princes continued to fear Ferdinand’s ambitions. A
new line-up began to develop: territorial princes against an overpowerful
Emperor, rather than Catholics against Protestants.
From 1630, the conflicts became increasingly international in character.
Ferdinand’s attempted control of all Germany was thwarted by the intervention
of the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus. In a separate Swedish–Polish conflict,
Sigismund of Poland had been forced to make peace with the Swedes in 1629,
and in 1630 the Swedish army invaded Germany. The well-prepared Swedish
army made relatively rapid advances into German territory at precisely the time
one of the Catholics’ most important Generals, Wallenstein, was out of
commission. This marked a military turning point in the Protestant fortunes,
coinciding with important internal political developments which were weakening
princely support for the Emperor. At the same time, Cardinal Richelieu of
France, involved in bitter conflicts with Habsburg Spain in a separate struggle
for territorial hegemony in western Europe, was keen to support German princes
– whether Protestant or Catholic – in their resistance to the Habsburg Emperor.
But France was no happier about the potential prospect of a Swedish empire as
neighbour. Thus what had until now been essentially a series of local German
conflicts, won by the Habsburgs, became part of a wider set of conflicts
involving Sweden, France and Spain as well. With the Swedish advance, a series
of agreements, often mutually contradictory, began to be made between the
Swedes, certain German princes, and France, as relationships became more
complicated and interests even more crosscutting than in the earlier phase.
In 1631 the Catholic General Tilly savagely destroyed the city of
Magdeburg. But the Swedish army, along with John George of Saxony, defeated
Tilly near Leipzig. Gustavus Adolphus turned south, advancing through
Würzburg, Frankfurt and Mainz. Meanwhile, Richelieu was strengthening
French interests along the Rhine. With the powerful Swedish advance, the
Protestant King Gustavus Adolphus began to look as strong and threatening to
the ‘liberated’ German princes as had the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand. Fears
grew that Germany might become instead incorporated into an expanded
Swedish empire. In 1632, Ferdinand recalled Wallenstein; Tilly attempted to
block the Swedish advance into Bavaria, but was fatally wounded. Wallenstein
managed to force the Swedish army north, and attempted to break Saxony’s
alliance with Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus himself was killed at the battle of
Lützen near Leipzig in November 1632; since his heir was a six-year-old
daughter, his place was taken by the Swedish chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna. In
the 1633 Heilbronn Convention, Protestant members of four south German
circles allied with Sweden. Wallenstein meanwhile started playing games on his
own initiative, and possessed the military power to realise them, such that
Vienna began to plot his deposition. After conspiracies, defections and desertion,
Wallenstein was murdered in 1634.
The battle of Nördlingen, of September 1634, was a catastrophe for the
Swedes, and a great victory for the Spanish army under the command of Philip
IV of Spain’s brother, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands. The international
balance of power began to shift again. The 1635 Peace of Prague saw peace
between Saxony and the Emperor, and for a time suggested a revival of
Ferdinand II’s fortunes. Many German princes came to accept a settlement with
the Emperor, and the German war as such began to peter out. Since France could
no longer operate effectively through supporting German princes, France now
had to intervene formally: in May 1635 France issued an official declaration of
war against Spain. France, Spain and Sweden continued fighting, despite limited
settlements between individual German princes and the Emperor within the
Empire. No power was now strong enough to achieve rapid and decisive results.
Individual princes began to reach separate agreements with the French and the
Swedes, isolating the Emperor; in effect the Empire was no longer acting as a
unit with respect to foreign affairs. Brandenburg and Saxony deserted the
Emperor to make separate truces with Sweden, while Bavaria made an array of
agreements in a desperate effort to prevent armies from further devastating
Bavarian soil. The very complexity of the situation, and the lack of clearly
demarcated fronts and issues, was one reason why the wars and fighting
continued to drag on for so long. In a general context of plundering, collapse of
resources and creation of wastelands, a general settlement of European conflicts
was finally reached in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Even then, the settlement
took several years of wrangling, with separate discussions taking place in the
Protestant and Catholic camps, meeting in Münster and Osnabrück.
THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA AND THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR
The Peace of Westphalia represented a compromise to settle two sets of conflicts
within the Empire: that between Protestants (of all persuasions) and Catholics;
and that between the ambitions of the Emperor and the powers of the princes of
the Empire. It also attempted to achieve a balance of power among European
states, but while German affairs were largely settled, the conflict between France
and Spain continued. Moreover, France and Sweden were guarantors of the
Imperial Constitution, providing a basis for subsequent intervention.
Nevertheless, the Peace of Westphalia was a benchmark for the Empire’s public
law and political life, remaining its basic constitution until the abolition of the
Empire in 1806.
The Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück which constituted the Peace of
Westphalia included a large number of provisions. Parts of Alsace were ceded to
France, although retaining a connection with the Empire in a complex and
ambiguous relationship which puzzled even Cardinal Mazarin of France, and
ensured future conflicts between France and Germany. The independent duchy
of Lorraine was even less fortunate, in that its status at this time was not
determined, and it continued to be fought over for some years. Sweden made
considerable gains in north Germany, including western Pomerania (the eastern
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