A history of the secularization issue

Acts of the Conférence Internationale de Sociologie des Religions (CISR)
CISR 1951. Etat présent de la sociologie religieuse: 3^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse [1951 Bréda]. Numéro spécial de Error: Reference source not found.

CISR 1953. Sociologie religieuse, sciences sociales: Actes du 4^ème Congrès international [de sociologie religieuse - 1953 La Tourette]. Paris: Editions ouvrières.

CISR 1958a. Vocation de la sociologie religieuse, sociologie des vocations: 5^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse [1956 Louvain]. Tournai: Casterman.

CISR 1958b. Paroisses urbaines, paroisses rurales: 5^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse [1956 Louvain]. Tournai: Casterman.

CISR 1960. "Actes de la 6^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse [1959 Bologne]". Social Compass 7 (1-2-3), pp. 7-266.

CISR 1965. L'appartenance religieuse: Congrès de Königstein 1962 [7^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse]. Bruxelles: Editions du CEP.

CISR 1966. "8^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse [1965 Barcelone]". Social Compass 13 (1), pp. 5-68.

CISR 1967. Le clergé dans l'Eglise et la société: Actes de la 9^ème Conférence internationale [de sociologie religieuse] - Montréal 1-4 Août 1967. Rome: CISR.

CISR 1969. Types, dimensions et mesure de la religiosité: Actes de la 10^ème Conférence internationale [de sociologie religieuse] - Rome 18-22 Août. Rome: CISR.

CISR 1971. Religion et religiosité, athéisme et incroyance dans les sociétés urbaines et industrialisées: Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse - Actes de la 11^ème conférence - Opatija - Yougoslavie - 20-24 septembre 1971. Lille: CISR.

CISR 1973. Métamorphose contemporaine des phénomènes religieux? Actes de la 12^ème Conférence internationale [de sociologie religieuse] - La Haye 26-30 Août 1973. Lille: CISR.

CISR 1975. Changement social et religion: Actes de la 13^ème Conférence internationale [de sociologie religieuse] - Lloret de Mar - Espagne - 31 Août-4 septembre 1975. Lille: CISR.

CISR 1977. Symbolisme religieux, séculier et classes sociales: Actes de la 14^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie des religions - Strasbourg 1977. Lille: CISR.

CISR 1979. Religion et politique: Actes de la 15^ème Conférence internationale de Sociologie des religions - Venise 1979. Lille: CISR.

CISR 1981. Religions, valeurs et vie quotidienne: Actes de la 16^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie des religions - Lausanne 1981. CISR.

CISR 1983. Religion et domaine public: Actes de la 17^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie des religions - Londres 1983. Paris: CISR.

CISR 1985. Religion et modernité, survie ou réveil? Actes de la 18^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie des religions - Louvain-la-Neuve [1985]. Lausanne: CISR.

CISR 1987. Sécularisation et religion, la persistance des tensions: Actes de la 19^ème Conférence internationale de sociologie des religions - Tübingen 1987 - 25-29 août. Lausanne: CISR.

Textbooks
TXT 1939. Lundberg, George A. Foundations of Sociology. New York: MacMillan.

TXT 1947. Hiller, Ernest Theodore. Social Relations and Structures: A Study in Principles of Sociology. New York: Harper & Brothers.

TXT 1948. Davis, Kingsley. Human Society. New York: MacMillan.

TXT 1949. MacIver, Robert M. and Page, Charles H. Society: An Introductory Analysis. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

TXT 1950. McCormick, Thomas Carson. Sociology: An Introduction to the Study of Social Relations. New York: Ronald Press.

TXT 1951. Martindale, Don and Monachesi, Elio D. Elements of Sociology. New York: Harper & Brothers.

TXT 1952a. Gittler, Joseph Bertram. Social Dynamics: Principles and Cases in Introductory Sociology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

TXT 1952b. Merrill, Francis Ellsworth and Eldredge, H. Wentworth. Culture and Society: An Introduction to Sociology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

TXT 1953. DeGrange, McQuilkin. The Nature and Elements of Sociology. New Haven: Yale University Press.

TXT 1954. Lundberg, George A. et al. Sociology. New York: Harper & Brothers.

TXT 1955. Broom, Leonard and Selznick, Philip. Sociology: A Text with Adapted Readings. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson & Co.

TXT 1956a (second edition). Green, Arnold Wilfrer. Sociology: An Analysis of Life in Modern Society. New York: McGraw-Hill.

TXT 1956b. Rose, Arnold M. Sociology: The Study of Human Relations. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

TXT 1957. Fichter, Joseph Henry. Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

TXT 1960. Johnson, Harry M. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

TXT 1961a. Bell, Earl H. Social Foundations of Human Behavior: Introduction to the Study of Sociology. New York: Harper & Brothers.

TXT 1961b. Chinoy, Ely. Society: An Introduction to Sociology. New York: Random House.

TXT 1962a. Bredemeier, Harry Charles and Stephenson, Richard M. The Analysis of Social Systems. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

TXT 1962b (second edition). Young, Kimball and Mack, Raymond W. Sociology and Social Life. New York: American Book Company.

TXT 1963a (second edition). Bierstedt, Robert. The Social Order: An Introduction to Sociology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

TXT 1963b. Gouldner, Alvin W. and Gouldner, Helen P. Modern Sociology: An Introduction to the Study of Human Interaction. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

TXT 1963c. Quinn, James A. Sociology: A Systematic Analysis. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.

TXT 1964. Horton, Paul B. and Hunt, Chester L. Sociology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

TXT 1965. Mott, Paul E. The Organization of Society. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

TXT 1966a. Muzumdar, Haridas T. The Grammar of Sociology: Man in Society. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.

TXT 1966b. Wilson, Everett Keith. Sociology: Rules, Roles, and Relationships. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press.

TXT 1967. Bertrand, Alvin L. Basic Sociology: An Introduction to Theory and Method. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

TXT 1969a. Biesanz, John and Biesanz, Mavis. Introduction to Sociology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

TXT 1969b. Dressler, David. Sociology: The Study of Human Interaction. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

TXT 1969c. McKee, James B. Introduction to Sociology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

TXT 1969d. Phillips, Bernard S. Sociology: Social Structure and Change. London: Macmillan.

TXT 1970. Nisbet, Robert A. The Social Bond: An Introduction to the Study of Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

TXT 1971a. Caplow, Theodore. Elementary Sociology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

TXT 1971b. Hodges Jr, Harold M. Conflict and Consensus: An Introduction to Sociology. New York: Harper & Row.

TXT 1971c (second edition). McNall, Scott G. The Sociological Experience: A Modern Introduction to Sociology. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.

TXT 1971d. Roe, Richard L. (publisher). Society Today. Del Mar, California. Communications Research Machines.

TXT 1972a. Berger, Peter L. and Berger, Brigitte. Sociology: A Biographical Approach. New York: Basic Books.

TXT 1972b. Rabow, Jerome. Sociology, Students and Society. Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear.

TXT 1973a. Storer, Norman W. Focus on Society: An Introduction to Sociology. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.

TXT 1973b. Tumin, Melvin M. Patterns of Society: Identities, Roles and Resources. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.

TXT 1975a. Baldridge, J. Victor. Sociology: A Critical Approach to Power, Conflict, and Change. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

TXT 1975b. Hammond, Phillip E. et alii. The Structure of Human Society. Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath & Company.

TXT 1975c. Sites, Paul. Control and Constraint: An Introduction to Sociology. New York: Macmillan.

TXT 1976a. Bensman, Joseph and Rosenberg, Bernard. Mass, Class and Bureaucracy: An Introduction to Sociology. New York: Praeger Publishers.

TXT 1976b (second edition). DeFleur, Melvin L. et alii. Sociology: Human Society. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman & Company.

TXT 1976c. Demerath III, N.J. and Marwell, Gerald. Sociology: Perspectives and Applications. New York: Harper & Row.

TXT 1976d. Kloss, Robert Marsh et alii. Sociology with a Human Face: Sociology as if People Mattered. Saint Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company.

TXT 1977a. Boguslaw, Robert and Vickers, George R. Prologue to Sociology. Santa Monica, California: Goodyear.

TXT 1977b. Robertson, Ian. Sociology. New York: Worth.

TXT 1978 (third edition). Anderson, Charles H. and Gibson, Jeffry Royle. Toward a New Sociology. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press.

TXT 1979a (second edition). Denisoff, R. Serge and Wahrman, Ralph. An Introduction to Sociology. New York: Macmillan.

TXT 1979b. Ritzer, George et alii. Sociology: Experiencing a Changing Society. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

TXT 1979c. Szymanski, Albert J. and Goertzel, Ted George. Sociology: Class, Consciousness, and Contradictions. New York: D. Van Nostrand.

TXT 1984. Goode, Erich. Sociology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

1 At least seven different attempts at providing a general overview of the "secularization thesis" have been made: Shiner 1967, Lauwers 1973, Rosanna 1973, Glasner 1977, Coleman 1978, Roggero 1979, Dobbelaere 1981.

2 This contradiction struck me the first time I read this article, but it has also been noticed by other persons, for instance Frank Lechner, who remarked upon it during the discussion following the presentation of his paper (Lechner 1990; this paper was first presented at the 1989 meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion in Salt Lake City).

3 Dobbelaere argues that he is not discussing the Durkheimian paradigm, because "sociologists using a Durkheimian approach rather reject the process of secularization" (1984, p. 201). This is true with respect to Durkheim's theory of religion, but not with respect to his general methodological orientation. In reality, Dobbelaere's discussion unwittingly includes the Durkheimian paradigm, as is clear from Ritzer's definition, which he follows. Ritzer distinguishes his two "paradigms" in the following way: "While the social factist studies social facts as coercive on man, the phenomenological sociologist studies how men engage in the process of creating the maintaining social facts that are coercive on him" (quoted in Dobbelaere 1984, p. 205). Which is exactly what separates the "Durkheimian" from the "Weberian" lines of analysis, which Berger and Luckmann attempt to bridge: "How is it possible that human activity (Handeln) should produce a world of things (choses)?" (Berger and Luckmann 1966a, p. 30). Indeed, Ritzer's presentation of the "social facts paradigm" is based on Durkheim's definition of "facts" (Ritzer 1975, p. 36), and his presentation of the "social definition paradigm" is based on Weber's definition of social action (1975, p. 84).

4 But even this must be questioned: it is clear that both of these approaches are much more complex and subtle than is implied by Ritzer's, or by Berger and Luckmann's definitions.

5 "By using 'social definitions' as if they were 'social facts', that is to say, as social entities, they made a switch of paradigms which distorts their analysis and which is totally misleading" (1984, p. 207).

6 This is best illustrated by Charles W. Mills' famous "translation" of Parsons' Social System (1959, pp. 27-33).

7 The notion of fact as a "black box" has been developed by Latour in Science in Action (1987).

8 This last interpretation is mine, not the author's.

9 This is again my interpretation of the author's data.

10 As will be shown later on, the secularization paradigm is very much tied to a functionalist approach of religion. But this affirmation must be qualified: as Wade Clark Roof remarked in the debate which followed the presentation of Silverman's paper, the rise he noted does not mean that functional theory is endorsed by all the reviewers, but merely that it is an important topic. By the same token, I do not mean to say that secularization theory depends on functional theory, but that it raises questions - like the definition of religion, or the problem of civil religion - which are always debated against the background of functional theory.

11 The analysis bears on all the texts included in the HM51 section (official Library of Congress denomination: "General works, treatises, and advanced textbooks in English [in sociology]") of the Memorial Library of the University of Wisconsin at Madison, except for 1) readers and anthologies; 2) foreign (non-American) textbooks; 3) very short introductions.

12 In reality, I started with 27 texts. In this sample, I found a first category of textbooks in which this word never appeared: in critical textbooks. In these texts (TXT 1975a, 1977a, 1978, 1979c) the treatment of religion in general is very weak. Critical approaches, as exemplified in these texts, largely ignore the modern sociological approach to religion, and rest content with analyzing religion as "the opium of the people" (TXT 1979, p. 185). None of these texts contains a separate chapter on religion. Still another text is in a particular position, since it was written by Peter and Brigitte Berger (TXT 1972a). For obvious reasons, the treatment of secularization theory in this text cannot simply be regarded as evidence of the existence of the paradigm. Once I had eliminated the 4 critical texts and Berger's, I was left with an homogeneous sample of 22 textbooks.

13 TXT 1969a, 1969b, 1971c, 1971d, 1972b, 1973a, 1973b, 1975c, 1976a, 1979a.

14 But in two of these, rationalization is used in the psycho-analytical sense.

15 References for the textbooks are included in the bibliography under a separate heading.

16 Secularization is related by Burgess to "the declining control of religion and [...] the increasing role of material comforts [...]" (Burgess, cited in TXT 1971a, p. 489).

17 TXT 1969c, 1970, 1971b, 1976b, 1976c, 1976d, 1977b, 1979b.

18 The Acts of the CISR are listed in the bibliography under a separate heading.

19 A thorough analysis of the Acts before 1967 is presented in chap. 10.

20 A social movement of priests of the Anglican Church.

21 This last point being drawn from Howard Becker, to whom the author referred.

22 A student of Dobbelaere.

23 This fact occured to me after I had defined these two periods with regard to the ICSR - I analyzed the Acts of the CISR several months before adopting the Kuhnian approach. As a matter of fact, it is reflection on my findings with regard to the CISR that rekindeled in my memory the arguments put forward in Kuhn's Structure (1962), which I had read about two years before.

24 It might be argued that the way in which I selected this literature constitutes a bias. This seems very unlikely to me: although Dobbelaere 1981 (the importance of which will be brought out in the following analysis) was one of my first readings, during the subsequent 2 years, I assembled all the references concerning secularization I found, very often by sheer chance. But very soon, I found that I had more or less exhausted the existing literature (in so far as it was directly related to sociology of religion), and I kept coming across the same references again and again.

25 See for instance Cipriani 1981, p. 142, Hervieu-Léger and Champion 1986, pp. 187-227, Yanagawa 1987, McGuire 1987, pp. 221-254, and the volume of the 19^th CISR (1987), entirely devoted to secularization.

26 With the exception of Martin's, which was a mistake on my part. At the beginning of my research, I had underestimated Martin's position in the field.

27 In the case of some recent works, the number of years is inferior to 10. In some other cases, the number of citations refers to a later period, as for instance with Herberg's book (the SSCI does not start before 1965).

28 Including the British edition, which appeared under the title The Social Reality of Religion.

29 The number of citations for Civil Religion is difficult to assess. 3 citations go to the original version published in Social Forces, but another 6 go to Beyond Belief, in which the paper was reprinted 3 years later.

30 The discrepancy with regard to Wilson is far less important than in the case of Dobbelaere, since his writings on secularization are scattered in several books, all of which are relatively well-known outside of the community (SSCI).

31 I fixed no strict limit, but corrected the figures given in some cases on the basis of comparisons between persons who mutually evaluated the intensity of their relationship. Thus, X was apt to declare that he had met Y "perhaps 1000 times", whereas Y declared that he had met X "about 50 times". These comparisons indicated that the comparison of the general trends given by different persons were fairly reliable, but that the absolute numbers were much less reliable. Hence the necessity to make some corrections.

32 Other significant discrepancies concern Hervieu-Léger and Isambert. These are not very important for our purposes and can easily be accounted for: these two sociologists are both members of the very influential Groupe de sociologie des religions (CNRS), and are thus in a central position in sociology of religion in France - and 9 of my 20 respondents belong to the French-speaking world.

33 Although he did not lose his interest in religion.

34 Especially if we consider the "dispersal of Wilson's students and associates through British universities" (Wallis and Brice 1989, p. 304).

35 Very much like former American presidents. Thus for instance, in Helsinki, when the General Assembly had to choose a new name for the organization, Wilson, as a former president, was called by the president (Dobbelaere) to give his very decisive advice.

36 Interview with Dobbelaere.

37 Interview with Dobbelaere.

38 In 1980 in Archives de sciences sociales des religions 50 (1), and in 1987 in the British Journal of Sociology 37 (2).

39 Whose president, Meredith McGuire, represented the SSSR at the ICSR Helsinki meeting.

40 Whose president, Jim Beckford, was present in Helsinki.

41 One might want to object that an international association of scholars is too anomic to be considered a scholarly community. However, this objection applies only if we consider the formal relations (exchanges of views in official meetings). Behind this facade, there is a lively network of informal relations. Furthermore, even at the formal level, the CISR can boast a somewhat more communitarian structure than most other such associations: The mornings are always devoted to plenary sessions where most participants sit together, since there are no parallel working sessions at this time of the day.

42 It is very unfortunate that I did not include Martin in my questionnaire. This conclusion is supported mainly by informal discussions and consideration of Martin's active role in the ICSR.

43 I use this term in a very loose fashion, to refer to all the transformations which can be related to the transition from "traditional" to "modern" society - modern society being simply defined as the society in which we live today in the West. This sloppy use of the term is justified by the fact that I use this term in a metadiscursive way, to describe the theories I study, and that these different theories are all grounded on the assumption that "modernization" has happened, but do generally not agree as to what it is.

44 Concerning the opposition between substantive and functional definitions of religion, see Robertson 1970, pp. 34-47.

45 In the sense of Zweckrationalität.

46 I borrow the notion of recomposition from Hervieu-Léger and Champion 1986.

47 Which does not mean, however, that I consider these categories to correspond to the writer's intentions in a Skinnerian sense.

48 By contradistinction with the "locutionary" or "propositional" meaning, which is the meaning of the sentence as such (Tully 1988, p. 8).

49 This example and some of the following are not drawn from Skinner.

50 A few other technical remarks must also be made at this point. First, any italics inside quotation marks are the author's; I have added none. Second, I have used two different types of quotation marks; the " " indicate a quotation; the ' ' indicate parts which the author himself put into quotation marks in the part I am quoting. Finally, the dates of the references refer to the date of the original publication (which is in ( ) in the bibliography if this first publication is not the one I actually used), but the pagination refers to the later publication (which is not put into ( ) in the bibliography) whenever there is one. Dates in [ ] indicate that a chapter in a book appeared at that earlier date as a paper in a journal (but the pagination again refers to the later publication).

51 Detailed accounts of these developments have been provided by historians of science (see for example Lindberg and Numbers 1986).

52 Comte expressed this feeling quite dramatically in the first lines of his