29
Chapter 1
A use value, or useful article, therefore, has value only because human labour in the abstract has
been embodied or materialised in it. How, then, is the magnitude of this value to be measured?
Plainly, by the quantity of the value-creating substance, the labour, contained in the article. The
quantity of labour, however, is measured by its duration, and labour time in its turn finds its
standard in weeks, days, and hours.
Some people might think that if the value of a commodity is determined by the quantity of labour
spent on it, the more idle and unskilful the labourer, the more valuable would his commodity be,
because more time would be required in its production. The labour, however, that forms the
substance of value, is homogeneous human labour, expenditure of one uniform labour power. The
total labour power of society, which is embodied in the sum total of the values of all commodities
produced by that society, counts here as one homogeneous mass of human labour power,
composed though it be of innumerable individual units. Each of these units is the same as any
other, so far as it has the character of the average labour power of society, and takes effect as
such; that is, so far as it requires for producing a commodity, no more time than is needed on an
average, no more than is socially necessary. The labour time socially necessary is that required to
produce an article under the normal conditions of production, and with the average degree of skill
and intensity prevalent at the time. The introduction of power-looms into England probably
reduced by one-half the labour required to weave a given quantity of yarn into cloth. The hand-
loom weavers, as a matter of fact, continued to require the same time as before; but for all that,
the product of one hour of their labour represented after the change only half an hour’s social
labour, and consequently fell to one-half its former value.
We see then that that which determines the magnitude of the value of any article is the amount of
labour socially necessary, or the labour time socially necessary for its production.
9
Each
individual commodity, in this connexion, is to be considered as an average sample of its class.
10
Commodities, therefore, in which equal quantities of labour are embodied, or which can be
produced in the same time, have the same value. The value of one commodity is to the value of
any other, as the labour time necessary for the production of the one is to that necessary for the
production of the other. “As values, all commodities are only definite masses of congealed labour
time.”
11
The value of a commodity would therefore remain constant, if the labour time required for its
production also remained constant. But the latter changes with every variation in the
productiveness of labour. This productiveness is determined by various circumstances, amongst
others, by the average amount of skill of the workmen, the state of science, and the degree of its
practical application, the social organisation of production, the extent and capabilities of the
means of production, and by physical conditions. For example, the same amount of labour in
favourable seasons is embodied in 8 bushels of corn, and in unfavourable, only in four. The same
labour extracts from rich mines more metal than from poor mines. Diamonds are of very rare
occurrence on the earth’s surface, and hence their discovery costs, on an average, a great deal of
labour time. Consequently much labour is represented in a small compass. Jacob doubts whether
gold has ever been paid for at its full value. This applies still more to diamonds. According to
Eschwege, the total produce of the Brazilian diamond mines for the eighty years, ending in 1823,
had not realised the price of one-and-a-half years’ average produce of the sugar and coffee
plantations of the same country, although the diamonds cost much more labour, and therefore
represented more value. With richer mines, the same quantity of labour would embody itself in
more diamonds, and their value would fall. If we could succeed at a small expenditure of labour,
in converting carbon into diamonds, their value might fall below that of bricks. In general, the
greater the productiveness of labour, the less is the labour time required for the production of an
30
Chapter 1
article, the less is the amount of labour crystallised in that article, and the less is its value; and
vice versâ, the less
the productiveness of labour, the greater is the labour time required for the
production of an article, and the greater is its value. The value of a commodity, therefore, varies
directly as the quantity, and inversely as the productiveness, of the labour incorporated in it.
*
A thing can be a use value, without having value. This is the case whenever its utility to man is
not due to labour. Such are air, virgin soil, natural meadows, &c. A thing can be useful, and the
product of human labour, without being a commodity. Whoever directly satisfies his wants with
the produce of his own labour, creates, indeed, use values, but not commodities. In order to
produce the latter, he must not only produce use values, but use values for others, social use
values. (And not only for others, without more. The mediaeval peasant produced quit-rent-corn
for his feudal lord and tithe-corn for his parson. But neither the quit-rent-corn nor the tithe-corn
became commodities by reason of the fact that they had been produced for others. To become a
commodity a product must be transferred to another, whom it will serve as a use value, by means
of an exchange.)
12
Lastly nothing can have value, without being an object of utility. If the thing is
useless, so is the labour contained in it; the labour does not count as labour, and therefore
creates
no value.
Section 2: The Two-fold Character of the Labour Embodied in
Commodities
At first sight a commodity presented itself to us as a complex of two things – use value and
exchange value. Later on, we saw also that labour, too, possesses the same two-fold nature; for,
so far as it finds expression in value, it does not possess the same characteristics that belong to it
as a creator of use values. I was the first to point out and to examine critically this two-fold nature
of the labour contained in commodities. As this point is the pivot on which a clear comprehension
of political economy turns, we must go more into detail.
Let us take two commodities such as a coat and 10 yards of linen, and let the former be double
the value of the latter, so that, if 10 yards of linen = W, the coat = 2W.
The coat is a use value that satisfies a particular want. Its existence is the result of a special sort of
productive activity, the nature of which is determined by its aim, mode of operation, subject,
means, and result. The labour, whose utility is thus represented by the value in use of its product,
or which manifests itself by making its product a use value, we call useful labour. In this
connection we consider only its useful effect.
As the coat and the linen are two qualitatively different use values, so also are the two forms of
labour that produce them, tailoring and weaving. Were these two objects not qualitatively
different, not produced respectively by labour of different quality, they could not stand to each
other in the relation of commodities. Coats are not exchanged for coats, one use value is not
exchanged for another of the same kind.
To all the different varieties of values in use there correspond as many different kinds of useful
labour, classified according to the order, genus, species, and variety to which they belong in the
social division of labour. This division of labour is a necessary condition for the production of
commodities, but it does not follow, conversely, that the production of commodities is a
*
The following passage occurred only in the first edition. “Now we know the substance of value. It is labour.
We know the measure of its magnitude. It is labour time. The form, which stamps value
as exchange-value, remains to
be analysed. But before this we need to develop the characteristics we have already found somewhat more fully.”
Taken from the Penguin edition of “Capital,” translated by Ben Fowkes.