Chapter 2 – Ethics and practicalities of cooperative fieldwork and analysis
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1.2. Normative ethics
The ethical decisions made during fieldwork belong to the domain of pro-
fessional ethics. Since many field research networks also create codes of
conduct, we are also concerned here with normative ethics. Normative
practices attempt to prescribe best-practice standards for field situations.
A research team might make the normative decision to adhere to a de-
tailed set of ethical
principles determined in advance, asking “is our aim
just to evaluate the resolution of past ethical dilemmas in the field by con-
sensus?” Normative guidelines generally follow a deductive or an inductive
approach. Some researchers review such a list of field experiences and at-
tempt to achieve consensus on future ethical research behavior.
Another less normative approach might simply be to observe and note
the ethical dilemmas that appear. This descriptive list of relevant field di-
lemmas and how they were resolved could serve as a reference for future
field researchers. An example of a less normative approach is the “do no
harm” credo discussed below.
The dangers of excessive normativity are well-known; colonial subjuga-
tion, religious or cultural conversion-induced linguicide, and
business profit
are all examples of normative frameworks which are tendentially destruc-
tive. Such frameworks are assumed by their proponents to be universally
held, and universally beneficial.
1.2.1. Documenting endangered languages as a normative framework
Claiming that languages should be documented before they disappear is
also a normative act, and it is a framework in which not everyone believes.
4
But most researchers strongly support the documentation of endangered
languages, arguing that a decline in linguistic diversity constitutes a decline
in specific forms of knowledge and expression. Speakers of endangered
languages also often support such a normative framework, since language
is a central part of culture and of ethnic identity. Should a language be
documented when its speakers would prefer it to disappear? How should
community priorities and external western-scientific priorities be weighed?
Many would argue that documentation should make the language available
to future generations; most would also argue that both sets of priorities
should be accommodated, to the extent possible.
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Arienne M. Dwyer
1.2.2. Balancing priorities
Since field linguistic situations are so diverse, one-size-fits-all codes of
conduct are impractical. Codes of conduct are voluntary and often largely
unenforceable, but good guidelines help ensure good working relationships
and a positive research outcome. For the sake of methodological transpar-
ency, and for smooth communications between all parties, some norms are
always part of the field experience.
Most research teams choose a pragmatic approach, making use of both
explicit ethical guidelines as well as drawing observations from specific
field experiences.
5
No matter what form is chosen, research teams would do
well to make explicit the ethical norms of their particular project.
1.2.3. Normative ethics in language documentation
Individual teams should establish a code of ethical norms specific to their
particular area for a given research project. This code would encompass
detailed guidelines on consultation and negotiation between indigenous
people and researchers for all phases of the research, including planning
and dissemination.
Since such voluntary normative approaches have proven useful, the sci-
entific community can aim at establishing a two-tiered, flexible ethical code
for linguistic field research: a generic code of putatively universal ethical
norms, and as above a specific individual code for a research on an ethnic
group in a particular area, created by individual researchers.
At present, linguists lack a generic code of conduct. Ideally, field lin-
guists will work with the country’s linguists and social scientists to devise
this generic code. This code would be specific for field linguistics but could
be modelled on existing well-articulated guidelines (such as the Australian
Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies’ Guidelines for
ethical research in indigenous studies [AIATSIS 2000], the African Studies
Association’s Guidelines for ethical conduct in research and projects in
Africa [African
Studies
Association
n.d.], and the American Anthropological
Association’s
Code of ethics [AAA 1998]). Though the above are designed
as regional codes, they are actually generic enough as to be potentially ap-
plicable to any world region.
A generic statement on ethical principles should address all phases of re-
search: planning, fieldwork, analysis, archiving, and end products. Planning
ethically for each phase entails assessing the roles played by participants