Chapter 2 – Ethics and practicalities of cooperative fieldwork and analysis
35
and the potential benefits and detriments of research; it also ideally includes
local participants’ participation at every phase. In the planning phase, re-
searchers should identify all the potential participants (see Section 1.3 be-
low), including sponsoring institutions, and estimate remuneration for local
participants. During fieldwork, the researchers establish and maintain rela-
tionships, and negotiate contracts or protocols for obtaining data. It is at
this crucial phase that the researchers must obtain informed consent (see
Sections 1.5 and 2.2.1 below). The analysis phase includes such normative
ethical decisions as the number of minimally adequate levels of annotation.
Annotation decisions are questions of ethics, as what annotation is included
will determine the accessibility of the materials to particular audiences.
6
During the
archiving phase
, the researcher must carry through the wishes of
consultants in terms of anonymity and recognition by making speakers
anonymous; decisions must be taken on user access to the materials (com-
munity, scientific researchers, general public) and which materials are to be
accessed.
In the longer term, such codes of conduct could be developed for spe-
cific regions (countries or ethnolinguistic areas), based on a comparison of
individual codes of conduct from the same area. This would result in a third
tier of guidelines, a regional code. Though regional codes are the least
critical of the three types of guidelines, such a code would outline certain
region- or country-specific practices spanning a number of ethnic groups
for a given area, e.g. archival practices for material from a consultant who
passed away since the data collection.
1.3.
Players
The practical application of ethical principles entails the specification of
ethical and legal relationships between all participants in the documentation
process. These relationships should be made explicit and clearly differenti-
ated.
First, consultants (speakers/singers) are part of a certain sociocultural
context in a certain country (see Figure 1). The sociocultural context con-
sists not only of the speaker community itself but its relationship nested
within local society. Then, the interaction between researcher(s) and con-
sultant(s) occurs within a regional and national context, which includes
governments, officials, subject experts, and eventually users of the analyzed
data. Speaker-consultants are part of both linguistic and administrative com-
munities; language communities are usually part of larger ethnolinguistic or
36
Arienne M. Dwyer
ethnoreligious regions. These regions, in turn, may be contiguous with or
reach across provincial or national boundaries.
The roles and perspectives of participants are gradient and dynamically
created. We can use “insider/outsider” as shorthand to describe two ex-
tremes of how a researcher situates himself or herself with regards to the
research situation, as well as how other participants view that researcher.
The researcher might be an insider (i.e. accepted as a member of that com-
munity) or an outsider (from a distant community, whether in that country
or in another). These roles are gradient rather than absolute, since a foreign
researcher and a native speaker from a distant community may both be con-
sidered “outsiders” from the community under investigation. A local re-
searcher often assumes multiple insider/outsider roles: it is often the case
that a researcher is part of the ethnolinguistic group, but not or no longer
from the particular community. In this situation, that researcher is both an
insider and an outsider. The distinction may be relevant for research plan-
ning, as it often facilitates research to work with a person from the actual
community under investigation.
Furthermore, researchers’ institutional connections play an important
role in determining both the direction and scope of the research. Every in-
stitution has its own agenda. If a researcher is funded by a university in that
nation’s capital, for example, in some cases he/she might be expected to
produce a study that enhanced that country’s ethnic policy. A researcher
from overseas might, in contrast, be subtly pressured by the home univer-
sity or the funding agency to quickly obtain a lot of data and produce publi-
cations, while overlooking the need for reciprocity with the speech com-
munity. Creating research products useful to communities is an issue which
will become more and more central to the ethical practice of the research
enterprise, though currently grant funding is mostly limited to products for
a scientific audience.
Institutional affiliations almost invariably insinuate themselves into the
power relationships between players. Though outsiders may be regarded
with more suspicion than insiders, the affiliations of outsiders generally are
seen as prestigious. Usually enhancing this prestige is the economic means
of the researcher as a result of the funding.
Then in this web of relations there is the archive, in which the researcher
deposits his or her materials. Though requirements of the granting agency
vary, each has specific guidelines for data depositing and use. Finally, the
archive disseminates data to users.