Chapter 2 – Ethics and practicalities of cooperative fieldwork and analysis
57
If compensation is given in the form of gifts, popular items include
foods, candy, tea, or cloth. Note that some presents such as tobacco or
liquor will only benefit one part of a family, and may, in some situa-
tions, delight one family member while angering another.
– Common-courtesy
compensation:
media
Audio and visual media of all types are among the nicest ways to “give
something back” to a consultant or a community. Some common exam-
ples include:
– Audio and video recordings
18
copied onto more accessible formats
(cassette, CD, VCD);
– Written material printed in a format useful to the community, e.g.
texts in a practical orthography (without excessive linguistic or com-
putational markup);
– Photos, sketches, and maps reproduced in pamphlet, album, or book
form.
– For communities
At present, most researchers present native speaker consultants with
small tokens of cooperative work, such as photographs and copies of re-
cordings. In the future, documentary activity may well be coupled with
or followed by providing primers, texts, and dictionaries to the commu-
nity. Given that both academic funding and linguists’ time is extremely
limited, these products may best be created by research partners (e.g.
pedagogy specialists) funded by nonacademic sources (e.g. economic
development funding). Though such product development at present
remains beyond the scope and funding of a scientific project, if the lin-
guist is still able to catalyze this work, the community will benefit
greatly.
4. Practicalities II: Common problems and some solutions
4.1. Money, gifts, and other obligations
What constitutes respectful and commensurate compensation will vary
widely from region to region, but some form of compensation is obligatory.
If community members have played a major role in creating the compensa-
58
Arienne M. Dwyer
tion structure, and if that structure is transparent, then the chances of diffi-
culty will be minimized. Even so, the material and/or interpersonal advan-
tages conferred by project work can still create tensions between research-
ers and community members, or between community members themselves.
4.1.1. Between outsider-researchers and consultants/community members
Scenario #1:
One common ethical dilemma resulting from ignoring participants’ com-
munity roles is dealing with the outrage of an uncompensated community
leader upon discovering that a young, non-prominent member received
remuneration for project work. Similar cases of envy may arise in a com-
munity when people hear what a consultant got paid or given, while the
clearly unqualified son of the village head wants that much too. If the re-
searcher does not pay the son, the village head may well withdraw permis-
sion for the researcher to do the sociolinguistic survey. (Solution: Be prag-
matic. If a researcher must, the son can be paid or given something, but
hopefully prevented from harming the project.)
Scenario #2:
One of your local team members is certain that she is not getting her
“share” of the budget, and furthermore is convinced that the outsider-
researcher is making thousands of Euros every day on this project. (Possi-
ble solution: If there is enough trust between you, share the project budget
with the team member and explain allocations. If this is not possible, re-
view and reach an agreement with her over adequate compensation.)
Often no amount of discussion can ever totally subdue the suspicion that
the P.I is horribly wealthy (which in comparison with local people at least
is often true), and also making a fortune off the project. In situations of
mutual trust, an open budget may be appropriate. In other situations, a fully
open budget might exacerbate perceptions of inequity. Core indigenous
research partners should in any case be central to budget and compensation
planning, and should have a clear idea of the scope of the project. The out-
sider-researcher can go a long way to dispelling perceptions of inequity
(real or imagined) by modelling parsimonious conduct, i.e. by living inex-
pensively as much as possible. Care with expenditures (but not stinginess)
can also help. Also, he should avoid answering questions about how much
Chapter 2 – Ethics and practicalities of cooperative fieldwork and analysis
59
recording equipment costs, as it really is shockingly expensive. Instead, he
can just say, “Oh, pretty much” or “Yeah, it’s a good tape recorder.”
4.1.2. Between researchers and their funding agencies
Researchers who wish to produce lasting and useful products for communi-
ties are in a bit of a bind. On the one hand, they are universally grateful for
the academic research funding they receive. On the other hand, scientific
funding agencies are not in the business of technology or pedagogical mate-
rials transfer to the community; their primary goal is to support the analytical
by-products of research on an international standard, such as books, articles,
analytical databases, and of course annotated data with associated metadata.
The production and transfer of materials to a community, from the point of
view of a funding agency, is not quite science and a Pandora’s box of end-
less expenses.
In the longer term, as ethical documenters we must do a better job of
convincing both academic and development funding agencies that linguistic
fieldwork – unlike much of natural science research, to which these funding
agencies are oriented – entails a long-term commitment (however superfi-
cial) to the communities, and thus the production of at least minimal mate-
rials for the communities is essential to doing fieldwork. Scientific funding
agencies will justifiably argue that they are not in the business of economic
development, but with endangered languages these issues simply cannot be
separated; economic impoverishment so often goes hand in hand with lan-
guage endangerment. Diversifying funding sources from non-governmental
development organizations may well be a workable future solution.
4.1.3. Between the outsider-researchers and communities
The compensation discussed above – photos, tapes, and gifts or contract
payments in the short term, a dictionary and/or grammar in the longer term
– is fully adequate. However, such compensation may still seem lacking,
given the time lag in producing reference works and their possible irrele-
vance for the parts of the community not involved in language maintenance
or revitalization. Some PIs, therefore, may be motivated to apply for eco-
nomic development funding. Such funding exponentially increases the long-
term contributions of a research collaboration to a community, for under
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