Japanese children’s perspectives on the
Table. 6.1: Key features of peer support in the Western nations and Japan
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Table. 6.1: Key features of peer support in the Western nations and Japan
As explained above, in terms of differences in key features (types of training, attitudes and skills, types of main activities, and main objectives) of both Japanese style peer support and the Western style peer support, it should not consider both some Japanese style peer support and the western style peer support as the same criteria. To put it simply, peer support activities, which are strongly based on Rogers’ model, should be classified as deferment activities from other group activities, such greeting campaigns, clearing campaign, fund-raising activities, and anti-bullying dramas. 6.3.2 The distinctive nature of Japanese peer support Bronfenbrenner’s model (Figure 6.1 below), can be applied to illuminate the differences between peer support in the West and Japan. In the West, peer support is mainly focused within the microsystem, peer support as practised in the West focused on the personal difficulties of the individual child and interpersonal relationships within the class room. As a result, teachers and pupils perceived that the ethos of the school became more positive and caring. Some schools in the West have school councils, where children from different classes come together to discuss important issues raised by children in different classes. However, school councils are not widespread in the West. Figure 6.1: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of child development 
Figure 6.2: Support levels in peer support schemes 
By contrast, peer support in Japan has a much wider focus. Instead of focusing on the Microsystem, much greater emphasis is placed on the Mesosytems and Exsosystem (see figure 6.1; the emphasis of peer support in Japan). Salmivalli’s participant role theory is also useful in understanding the impact of peer support in Japan. Essentially, the peer supporters in the role of defenders are helping the whole school, in particular the bystanders, who have the potential to influence whether children are bullied or whether they are protected. The defender role is expressed differently in Japan as compared to the West. For example, as the interviews showed, rather than supporting individuals with difficulties, the peer supporters created structures for the groups and social networks within the school so that the group would challenge bullying and other forms of discrimination. Participant role theory emphasises the power of the group in understanding the phenomenon of bullying and thus peer supporters in the defender role play a critical part in activating other people’s potential for prosocial behaviour. The majority of children are bystanders (in the outsider participant role) so the social activities of the peer supporters in the present study are very influential in changing behaviour and attitudes in a positive way. This process is likely to be sustained over time as the impact is on the group rather than the individual. Also, Hofstede’s theory (2005), also showed useful views on the development of peer support in Japan. In this study, peer supporters reported their various activities in a school, which were mainly related to group activities, such as cleaning campaigns, fund-raising activities, greeting activities, anti-bullying dramas, and school summits. In terms of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory and Salmivalli’s participant role theory, these group activities are useful and widely used in schools as a method for enhancing responsibility for one’s environment and for strengthening the norms of the group. In terms of Hofstede’s theory (2005), school activities and schemes have been influenced by the cultural context directly and indirectly, thus it is natural that peer support activities have also been linked to and affected by the cultural values and social contexts (e.g. collectivisms) Figure 6.3: Peer support practices and their necessary skills 
Therefore, due to educational and traditional needs, peer support in Japan have been developed into two different types activities; one is Rogers’ model approach (role as a counsellor), the other is citizenship orientated approach (role as a group leader). In this vein, two different types of peer support activities exist in Japan. Peer support practice in the West is strongly based on person-centred approach, where its training encourages the peer supporter to develop their counselling principles. In the West, peer supporters are trained to develop their counselling mind and skills which includes the six necessary and sufficient conditions (see chapter 2). In terms of the Western view, citizenship orientated approach (e.g. anti-bullying drama, greeting campaigns, fund-raising activities, and community actions) would not to be classified as peer support practice but part of citizenship-oriented education. From the perspective of Hoftstede (2005), the Japanese educational system and culture was not ready for peer support delivered through the JPSA training model. The school’s interpretation and delivery of JPSA training as citizenship oriented education would not be considered peer support using the Western-based, Rogerian approach. Consequently, the JPSA training method was culturally unacceptable because the school was unable to provide supervision for the ‘peer supporters’ to engage in the Rogerian, counselling-based approach with bullied pupils. 6.4 Practical implications for peer support schemes in Japan The overall aim of this research was to explore the experiences of young Japanese peer supporters using a qualitative approach. The findings of the study identified unique characteristics and experiences of peer supporters, which contribute to the body of knowledge in the peer support literature as well as to the practical improvements in schools. Several practical implications are suggested as below. 6.4.1 Suggestion (Information) for Japan Peer Support Association (JPSA) and educational authorities In terms of peer supporters’ experiences (the findings), several key issues of the peer support scheme were suggested for JPSA and educational authorities as below. These provide useful information whether the peer support schemes are successfully conduced or not:
(This helps them organise their planning and activities more effectively)
(Teachers should not label peer supporters as a smart group of pupils) 6.4.4 Information for school teachers (peer support coordinators)
6.5 Directions for future research Although the current study provided useful findings in peer support studies, further research is needed to expand the findings, which promote more conclusive answers. Also, since peer support is a relatively new educational scheme in Japan, continued research is vital to promote good practice in schools. There are several suggestions for further research below. Firstly, it is important to investigate children’s perspectives at a deeper level. Through the present research, the author was surprised by the findings, which showed several unrevealed topics (issues) of peer support. Even though previous studies revealed various aspects of peer supporters’ nature, these did not seem to provide an overall representation. This research therefore emphasises the importance of investigating the perspectives of children without bias and in their own words. Secondly, it is necessary to carry out further qualitative research in peer support studies in Japan. As described in chapter two, most prior studies had adopted a quantitative approach, using questionnaires and assessment sheets to examine the degree of children’s emotional and behavioural developments. As Smith (2008) highlights, a qualitative approach allows researchers to explore, describe and interpret the personal and social experiences of participants. In this sense, qualitative studies would contribute to a better understanding of knowledge in prior quantitative studies. Thirdly, researchers need to conduct cross-national studies in peer support. By taking cross-national perspectives (diversities), this study seemed to show the strengths, uniqueness and some critical issues of peer support practice in Japan. This is not only to share various practices and findings from other nations, but also to highlight advantages and disadvantages of particular types of peer support activities, which suit cultural and educational backgrounds. This also helps to provide further direction for future peer support studies and practice. 6.6 Limitations of the study This study explored the experiences of young Japanese peer supporters using a qualitative approach. Through the ethical assessment, supervisions and pilot interviews, the study was checked and designed to minimise both expected and unexpected limitations; however, there are still some limitations, which relate to methodological and practical constraints. One of the primary limitations of the study is the quality of the thematic analysis that is the coding role of the researcher. The author adopted thematic analysis to analyse the interview texts. The quality of research, especially analysis of the data is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the author. This is because the coding and analysis are strongly influenced by the authors’ (researcher’s) personal experiences and biases. In order to analyse the data without bias, the author spent 12 weeks processing the responses, allowing him to extract the key information (themes). The author spent more time to process the data. This allowed the author to carefully consider the themes as described in the thesis, where the themes were refined several times through his supervisions. The supervisions gave the author the opportunities to reconsider and restructure the themes and sub-themes when considering opinions from third parties (supervisors). Additionally, the author himself has six years’ experience of teaching in both Japanese and UK schools. In addition to this experience, prior to the interviews, the author spent nine weeks working with peer supporters inside and outside school. These shared experiences of working with pupils seemed to help the author understand the pupils’ views, meaning the author could minimise bias in his analysis. However, because the analysis process inescapably involved the interpretations of the author, this introduced subjective views, meaning these have to be acknowledged in terms of the analysis. The second limitation is that the study focused on peer supporters in a specific age group (13-14 years old) in lower secondary school in Japan. The study was designed to focus on this specific age group, because the literature has shown this age range of pupils have a high incidence of school bullying. Thus, the findings of the study cannot necessarily be generalised into other age groups (e.g. peer supporter in a primary school) and other nations’ findings. Theoretically, it was available to recruit 15 years old peer supporters in the school as this meant they had more than 2 years experiences of a peer supporter. However, due to the period of their entrance examinations into the higher secondary schools, it was not right the time for them to participate in the study. This meant that all participants have less than 2 years experiences of being a peer supporter which could influence their responses during the interviews. Also, due to the small sample size required for the thematic analysis, the findings of the study cannot be generalised to the greater population, which include even the same age groups and the same generation. Thus, similar studies are needed to provide more conclusive answers about peer supporters’ perspectives. The third limitation is that the author could not get permission from parents of the participants. Initially, consent to participate was planned at three levels, peer supporters (participants), their parents and the head teacher. This is because, the author wanted to make sure that the study complied with ethical considerations about children’s rights. However, in the process of taking permission from the head teacher, the author was recommended to get permission at two levels only, which were the head teacher and peer supporters (participants). Thus, consents were applied at two levels in the study. However, in order to fully consider children rights, the author explained the outline of the research and research (interview) process using the information sheet in advance, and also, the participants were orally explained before their interviews.
The present research was designed to explore Japanese pupils’ experiences of being a peer supporter. Considering the lack of qualitative studies in Japanese literature, thematic analysis was adopted, which allowed the study to explore in depth the reasons behind participants’ thoughts and behaviours. I made several recommendations with regard to training and classification based on the responses of the peer supporters. My study opens the way for future qualitative, in-depth studies of the experiences and perspectives of young peer supporters in their own particular social and cultural contexts. These would be helpful to facilitate, our understanding of the ways in which young people develop empathy for others’ suffering and find practical ways of expressing their altruism through action, whether at the one-to-one level of helping a bullied child of at the wider level of community action to help earthquake survivors whom they will not directly meet. 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