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carnation, points out that the word “avatar” long ago entered into the English lan-
guage, hence his—and, for some additional reasons that I will now note—my us-
age of it in unitalicized form, without diacritics. One of my main problems is that
Sathya Sai Baba uses a variety of forms of this word. Sometimes he uses the San-
skrit form “avatāra”, which has prominence in some of the traditional “scriptures”
to which he refers—but his discourses are usually delivered in Telugu, and the ba-
sic Telugu form of this word is avatāramu. At other times, he uses avatār—a
common North Indian vernacular form. Furthermore, these forms are variously
transliterated by his translators (Avathar, Avathaar, Avataara etc.), and additional
variety is found in English language works of, or about, other modern figures who
have claimed to be avatars (Avatar, Avatār, Avatāra, etc.). By using the English
word ‘avatar’, I mean to include all of these variations. Employing the English
form is even useful when referring to Sanskrit traditions—for, as we will see, ava-
tar-like ideas are very much present in some traditions from which the term ava-
tāra is absent (most famously, the Bhagavad-Gītā). Of course, when I specifically
wish to refer to the word “avatāra”, I will use the Sanskrit form.
As will soon become apparent, I have festooned the titles of my chapters (and
of some of my sections) with various English words that are rough synonyms of
“avatar” (“Embodiment”, ‘Incarnation”, “Manifestation”, “Descent”, “Theophany”,
and “Epiphany”). Freda Matchett (2001:1), in one of the most recent academic
studies of avatars, suggests that:
Translation of Avatar as ‘incarnation’ ‘is misleading because it suggests too strong a
resemblance to the Incarnation of Christian theology. The Latin incarnatio …implies
that what is important in the Christian concept is that the divine personage should
be ‘in the flesh’, i.e. totally real in human terms, all of a piece with the rest of hu-
man history.
6
Whereas Christians have been reluctant to use words like ‘appearance’
or ‘manifestation’ of their incarnate Lord, such ideas are implicit in the term ava-
tāra, since it has associations with the theatre.
But, as we will see, there are Hindu avatars who are very much portrayed as being
‘totally real in human terms’—although Matchett is right in that this is not pre-
dominantly the case. Also, while we will see that the term avatāra certainly has
some theatrical analogues and associations, we will see that these are not intrinsic
to the concept itself (see p.374). And I might further point out that in recent Eng-
lish usage, the term ‘incarnation’ has come to have the meaning of ‘appearance’—
especially denoting a new and altered ‘form’ of a phenomenon—being used syn-
6
NB Others have made similar suggestions—cf. p.95 below.
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onymously in this regard with the English word ‘manifestation’. Moreover, as we
will see, “Incarnation”, and most of the other above-listed terms are used as syno-
nyms in the English translations of Sathya Sai Baba’s discourses to which I have re-
ferred. The translators of these discourses do not, for the most part, imbue these
terms with any great “technical” significance, nor will I.
Anthropologist Morton Klass (1991:81) notes the fact that there are ‘certain
clear and essential differences to be observed between “atman” [‘self’ in Hindu-
ism] and “soul” [in the ‘theistic’ religions i.e. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam]’:
the atman of a living human is generally (well, reasonably “generally”) understood
to be a separated particle of the universal divine substance that permeates the cos-
mos—that is in fact the cosmos. We may refer to this universal divine substance as
Brahman or “Godhood” [sic]
7
but not as “God”—if by the latter term we mean to
imply sentience, or will, or separation from the rest of the universe [i.e. as (gener-
ally!) in the ‘theistic’ religions], and the Godhood, and the atman—are all in the end
one and inseparable; even the seeming separate identity of the atman is in a deeper
sense only an illusion [pp.90-91].
There is some truth in this generalisation, but Klass (1991:81) further implies that
it entails some misleading translations in the Sathya Sai Baba literature—perhaps
rendering ātman as “soul”, or Brahman as “God” in English. He asks rhetorically:
The words he uses must inevitably be translated into other languages: do they then
convey the same message to people not only of different speech but of different reli-
gious traditions? Sathya Sai Baba, we have observed, claims to be “God”—but does
he mean by that exactly what a monotheist understands that term to encompass?
Klass fails to note, however, that—in the overwhelming majority of Sathya Sai
Baba literature—these key terms, and indeed almost all the “technical” (and some-
times, indeed, non-technical
8
) Sanskrit terms used by Sathya Sai Baba are left in-
tact, sometimes without any translation being given
9
.
On the subject of translation, I would note that, in my several years of weekly
attendance at official Sathya Sai Baba “Study Circle” discussions, no issues arose
7
NB Klass, primarily an anthropologist and, by his own admission, no expert scholar of religion
[Klass (1991:7)], erroneously uses this term throughout his study, when what he means is ‘God-
head’. Furthermore, this last term does itself, at least in some of its common usages, have the same
personalistic undertones that he is seeking to avoid—witness its adoption by ISKCON. We may also
note that there is a sense in which Brahman is both sentient and separate from the “rest of the uni-
verse”, the world being conceptualised as a mental projection of “name and form” upon Brahman,
which is believed to be beyond these, yet also the originator of such mental projections.
8
E.g., witness the use of ‘Mathura Nagara’ for the “city of Mathura”, cited at the head of Chapter 1.
9
NB Palmer (2005:116) writes that ‘many western devotees thrive on eastern ways of doing things’,
and this extends to a general reverence for Sanskrit—a large glossary of Sanskrit terms used by
Sathya Sai Baba was compiled by a non-Indian (Victor Yap, 1998).