66
Paul Elbourne
It has been known for some time that the common view is at best only par-
tially enlightening and that it may very well be utterly false. There are four
phenomena that seem to be incompatible with it.
The first phenomenon is that of sloppy readings appearing when they cannot
possibly be the result of pronouns in VPs being bound. Some examples, with
sources, follow:
(8)
The policeman who arrested John read him his rights, but the policeman
who arrested Bill didn’t. (Wescoat 1989)
(9)
John’s coach thinks he has a chance, and Bill’s coach does too. (Rooth
1992)
(10)
If John has trouble at school, I’ll help him, but if Bill does, I won’t.
(Hardt 1999)
(11)
(John and Bill both have cats.) When I met John, I talked to his cat, but
when I met Bill, I didn’t.
Take (8), for example. It clearly has a reading, “. . . but the policeman who ar-
rested Bill didn’t read Bill his rights.” But this cannot be the result of the pro-
nouns in the antecedent VP being bound. If they were bound, the antecedent
would have the denotation [λx. x read x x’s rights]. If one understands this af-
ter the subject of the second sentence, one obtains the meaning “The policeman
who arrested Bill didn’t read himself his own rights.” This is clearly not the
meaning that the sentence in fact has. Analogous considerations hold for sen-
tences (9)–(11). Some though not all speakers obtain a reading for (9) that can
be paraphrased “John’s coach thinks John has a chance and Bill’s coach thinks
Bill has a chance.” If I say (10), I say that if Bill has trouble at school I will
not help him, Bill; and if I say (11) I say that when I met Bill I did not talk to
his, Bill’s, cat. None of these examples can be accounted for by the theory that
sees sloppy readings of pronouns as arising from VP-internal pronouns being
bound. They have in common the feature that the intuitive antecedent of the
The Semantics of Ellipsis
67
relevant pronoun in the antecedent VP does not c-command it. In the sentences
above, for example, John cannot c-command the pronouns him, his or he in the
first conjunct. I will call readings like these binderless sloppy readings.
The second phenomenon that seems incompatible with the common view
arises in connection with sentences like the following:
(12)
When John had to cook, he didn’t want to. When he had to clean, he
didn’t either. (Hardt 1999, Schwarz 2000)
This example clearly has a reading “When John had to cook, he did not want
to cook, and when he had to clean, he did not want to clean.” How it arrives
at this reading is entirely mysterious on the common view. The ellipsis in the
first sentence seems straightforward enough. We take cook to be the antecedent,
and resolve the ellipsis so as to produce a meaning “When John had to cook, he
did not want to cook.” The VP of the matrix clause in the first sentence will be
[
VP
want to cook]; or if the ellipsis is not resolved in the syntax but at some level
of semantic representation, there must be a VP denotation something like [λx. x
wants to cook]. This VP is the only plausible antecedent for the ellipsis in the
matrix clause of the second sentence. But any resolution procedure reliant on
identity of meaning or LF structure then predicts that the second sentence will
have to mean “When John had to clean, he did not want to cook.” This is not
the case, however. Thus the common view faces another significant problem. I
will call examples like these examples of ellipsis-containing antecedents.
Note that the problem of ellipsis-containing antecedents arises in other con-
figurations than that just given, where the antecedent for VP-ellipsis contained
VP-ellipsis. The following examples involve NP-deletion:
(13)
Every police officer who arrested some murderers insulted some, and
every police officer who arrested some burglars did too. (Elbourne 2001)
(14)
After the books went on sale, thirteen shoppers who had bought some
earlier complained; but after the magazines went on sale, only two did.
68
Paul Elbourne
(Eytan Zweig, personal communication)
(15)
When John wanted to cook, he met some people who didn’t want him
to; and when he wanted to clean he met some too.
(13), on one natural reading, means “Every police officer who arrested some
murderers insulted some murderers and every police officer who arrested some
burglars insulted some burglars.”
2
There is NP-deletion in the first conjunct:
insulted some is understood as “insulted some murderers.” We then have VP-
ellipsis in the second conjunct: did too intuitively takes insulted some as its
antecedent; but instead of being understood as “insulted some murderers,” it is
understood as “insulted some burglars.” An exactly analogous problem arises
in connection with (14), which means “After the books went on sale, thirteen
shoppers who had bought some books earlier complained; but after the maga-
zines went on sale, only two shoppers who had bought some magazines earlier
complained.” So the problem arises also when the antecedent of NP-deletion
contains NP-deletion. The fourth logical possibility is VP-ellipsis within the
antecedent of NP-deletion, and we see this in (15). On one reading, this means
“When John wanted to cook, he met some people who didn’t want him to cook;
and when he wanted to clean he met some people who didn’t want him to
clean.” Again, there is no obvious way in which the common view, which posits
straightforward identity of meaning or LF structure between antecedent and el-
lipsis, can account for these examples.
The third problem that faces the common view arises when an ellipsis site
seems to be related to more than one antecedent, and to draw material from
both. Some well-known examples are the following:
(16)
Bob wants to sail round the world and Alice wants to climb Kilimanjaro,
but neither of them can, because money is too tight. (Webber 1978)
2
There is possibly an ambiguity between “insulted some of the murderers he arrested” and
“insulted some other murderers.” This is not relevant here. See Elbourne 2001 for further dis-
cussion.
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