particularly scandalous, however. The papal agent, Tetzel, who was also
accountant to the important Fugger bankers, was sent to raise money by sale of
indulgences. Half the proceeds were to go to Rome (arousing considerable
resentment in Germany), while the other half would go to the Fuggers to pay off
a loan to Prince Albert of Brandenburg. Albert was seeking to obtain a third
episcopal dignity (the Archbishopric of Mainz, which held an electoral vote), but
this was forbidden by canon law; the loan was to enable Albert to bribe the Pope.
Luther objected; not only was it socially scandalous that the poor should be
exploited in such a cause, but also the practice was theologically unsound: God
simply could not be bought off in this way. In Luther’s view (arising out of his
formative ‘tower experience’) faith alone could be the source of salvation. In his
ninety-five theses, initially written in Latin for academic disputation but rapidly
translated and widely circulated, Luther produced a brilliant argument,
employing all the arts of rhetoric and irony to make his case.
Within a few weeks, the theses were being printed and distributed not only
from Wittenberg, but also Nuremberg, Leipzig, Basel and soon throughout
Europe. Luther was summoned to Rome, but Elector Frederick ensured him a
hearing in Germany instead. After disputes with Cardinal Cajetan in Augsburg,
and Eck in Leipzig, it was clear that the controversy would not die down. In
1520, Luther wrote three great tracts:
The Address to the Christian Nobility of
the German Nation; The Babylonish Captivity of the Church
; and
The Liberty of
the Christian
. Pope Leo X moved to excommunicate Luther with the papal bull
‘Exsurge Domine’, which Luther proceeded to burn. A second bull in 1521,
‘Decet Romanorum’, effected Luther’s excommunication. In 1521, the heads of
state of the German nation were summoned to an Imperial Diet in Worms, to
confer with the newly elected Emperor, Charles V. As part of the Diet’s business,
Luther was called to account for himself. After agonised self-questioning, Luther
came to the conclusion that he stood by his views, and was unrepentant. On his
return home, he was abducted by Frederick’s men and taken into safe custody in
the Wartburg Castle. Here Luther spent a productive year writing hymns (such as
‘Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott’: if one visits the Wartburg Castle, one can readily
appreciate the symbolism of the ‘safe stronghold’), and translating the New
Testament of the Bible into vernacular German. The importance of this latter
exercise can hardly be overstated. Luther’s view was that translation must be
into the language of ‘the mother in the home, the children in the street, the
common man in the market place’; and his translation served to standardise and
regularise written German, with New High German coming to dominate regional
differences in dialect. Linguistic concerns were of course less important to
Luther than his overriding aim: to bring the Word of God to all people, in a
language which they would be able to understand.
What were the main points of Luther’s theology? First, there was the crucial
importance attached to the concept of ‘justification by faith alone’. Salvation
was not achieved by good works; rather, it was freely granted by God and
experienced by humans as a sense of ‘new birth’. This led to a certain
emotionalism among some later Lutherans, an introverted concern with their
spiritual state. Secondly, there was an emphasis on the Scriptures as the basis of
authority (not the Pope, nor General Councils), and on a personal understanding
of the Bible. Thus the role of the clergy was transformed: rather than being
intermediaries between man and God, performing the rites and sacraments with
automatic efficacy, they became preachers of the Word, spreaders of the Gospel
to those who could not read it for themselves. Emphasis on individual
experience of salvation and interpretation of the Scriptures led to the notions of
‘every man a monk’ and ‘the priesthood of all believers’. In contrast to the
mediaeval Catholic belief in a particularly holy life being dependent on being a
member of the clergy, Lutherans believed that everyday work within this world
was also doing God’s will. (It also meant priests no longer had to be celibate;
Luther himself happily embarked upon married life.) Lutheran theology
appeared to promote a certain individualism, and a spiritual (if not secular)
equality of believers. Luther’s ideas were, however, far from strictly logical and
consistent, and gave rise to a range of diverse interpretations, as well as opening
the way for other individuals to propound their own versions of God’s Word as
expressed in the Bible.
The reception of Luther’s ideas was influenced by a number of factors. For
one thing, Emperor Charles V saw religious dissent within the Empire as but one
problem among many. In addition to his interests in Spanish and Italian affairs,
Charles V was much vexed by the ‘Turkish menace’. The Emperor was a ruler
with Europeanwide concerns, unable to spend a great deal of time in Germany,
where lack of decisive Imperial intervention allowed disputes to proceed long
enough to become entrenched. The reasons for the spread of Lutheran ideas
among different groups are various. Considerable weight has been given to the
role of printing in the rapid dissemination of Luther’s ideas: while in 1518 only
150 books were published in Germany, in 1524 the number had risen to nearly a
thousand. Luther himself was a great polemicist and populariser, averaging one
tract every fortnight. Not only pamphlets, but also cartoons and illustrated
broadsheets could be used to put across the message, as in the series illustrating
contrasts between Christ and Anti-Christ, the Pope being identified with the
latter. In an age when the majority of the population was illiterate, word of
mouth – and popular preaching – were highly important; and the prevalence of
large numbers of wandering traders and itinerant craftsmen played a role in
spreading news and views from town to town. The social and economic unrest of
a period of rising population and increased pressure on resources, as well as
political tensions among knights, princes, cities and Emperor, all played a role in
different patterns of reception of the Reformation. Prevalent anti-clericalism and
anti-Papalism probably played a part in the popular appeal of Luther’s ideas, the
full theological import of which was understood by only very few. But the
religious ferment precipitated by Luther led to movements in numerous towns
throughout Germany demanding at least evangelical preaching and reform of the
clergy, and often wider reforms of religious and social life. These movements
were extensive enough in the years 1521–4 to threaten a major social and
perhaps political upheaval. Even before the emergence of the concept of
‘Protestantism’, the ferment of a reforming movement became embroiled in a
range of more secular concerns, affecting the development of both ideas and
action.
THE GERMAN PEASANTS’ WAR
In 1524–6, there were widespread revolts by peasants and common people in
towns from the south-west to the north-east of Germany. Known as the
‘Peasants’ War’ or ‘Revolution of the Common Man’, this mass uprising has
been the subject of considerable historical debate. Following Friedrich Engels,
Marxist historians have seen it as an early ‘bourgeois revolution’ (although
lacking a mature bourgeoisie to carry it to success), while non-Marxist historians
have debated the relative importance of economic, political and ideological
factors in its causation and course.
The background lay in a series of earlier uprisings: the rebellion led by the
‘Piper of Niklashausen’ in 1476 (suppressed by the Bishop of Würzburg); the
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