own history – although, as Marx perceptively pointed out, not in conditions of
their own choosing. The social relations which developed between people in the
activities of producing and reproducing served to define class relations.
Historical stages were defined in terms of ‘modes of production’, made up of
specific relations of production (class relations) and of means of production
(determined largely by the level of technological development). Socioeconomic
developments in any given historical stage would give rise to political struggles
between classes; and revolutionary conflicts would then inaugurate the next,
higher historical stage. In Marx’s view, while ‘Asiatic societies’ were largely
stagnant, western European history was dynamic: a succession of stages led from
the primitive communism of tribal society, through ancient society, to feudalism,
and thence to modern capitalism. In this, the penultimate stage of human history,
class struggles increasingly simplified into the struggle between an ever-richer
capitalist bourgeoisie, and an ever-larger, increasingly emiserated (relatively if
not absolutely poorer) classconscious proletariat. The latter, totally alienated and
representing the abnegation of all humanity, would, by a revolution in its own
interests, in fact inaugurate a revolution in the interests of all humanity, bringing
about a communism based on plenty, in which classes would disappear, the state
and ideology would wither away, and all human beings would live in peace,
harmony, and self-fulfilment. This powerful vision, based partly in historical and
economic analysis, partly in philosophy and political socialism, expressed in a
series of extraordinarily clever tracts, essays, commentaries, and finally the
major, unfinished, three volumes of
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