Parts of it were incorporated into an expanded Reich, and parts were transformed
into the ‘Generalgouvernement’ under German administration. There followed
during the winter months of 1939–40 the so-called phoney war or
Sitzkrieg.
In
the spring of 1940 Hitler rapidly turned his attention north and west: first to
Scandinavia, where the Quisling regime in Norway gave a new political concept
to history, then, in May 1940, via Holland and Belgium to France, the defeat of
which was followed by occupation of the northern and western parts and the
installation of the compliant Vichy regime. In spring 1941 Germany attacked
Yugoslavia and Greece. The unexpected early and rapid victories boosted
Hitler’s domestic popularity, at a time when consumer conditions were still
relatively satisfactory; they also gave Hitler himself a false sense of invincibility.
Goering persuaded Hitler that the German Luftwaffe was in a position to knock
Britain out of the war, and a series of air-raids over Britain began. But Britain
proved more resistant to invasion and defeat than the Germans had expected; and
Hitler did not wait to defeat Britain and consolidate his hold in the west before
turning his attention eastwards. In the summer of 1941 he decided the time had
come to invade Russia, thus effecting what he had previously been concerned to
avoid: war on two fronts. The Russian campaign proved disastrous. German
troops were over extended and ill-equipped; and when the Russian winter came,
with icy winds and deep snow, German soldiers found themselves immobilised,
without adequate clothing, afflicted by frostbite and in some instances even
freezing to death. The Nazi charity collections at home (the winter relief fund,
WHW, including donations and one-pot meals) persuaded numerous Germans to
part with boots, coats, skis; but it was too little and too late. There were also
serious tactical mistakes in the military campaign, particularly in the mounting
of simultaneous and overambitious offensives which could not be sustained. In
1943, at Stalingrad, the Germans finally suffered a major defeat which could not
be disguised. Neither domestic morale nor Hitler’s faith in his inevitable victory
ever recovered.
Map 11.
The partition of Poland in 1939
The invasion of Russia was the first turning point in the war. Germany had
been prepared for a short, sharp war, but was not equipped to sustain a protracted
conflict of the sort which now developed. The second turning point came with
the transformation of what was still a European war into a world war in
December 1941. There had been a separate set of conflicts in the Pacific since
the early 1930s involving Japan. In December 1941 the Japanese attacked and
destroyed the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, as a result of which the USA
declared war on Japan. While Germany was linked with Japan as one of the axis
powers, there was no compulsion for Germany to come to Japan’s defence; yet
Hitler took this opportunity to declare war on the USA. His megalomaniac desire
for world mastery turned a European war – which Germany at this time still had
some hope of winning – into a world war, taking on the enormous military and
economic might of the most advanced industrial nation in the world.
Map 12.
Hitler’s empire by autumn 1942
From 1942–3, the war turned against Germany, with desert campaigns in
north Africa, relentless air-raids over Germany carried out by the RAF and the
American air forces, and continued fighting in Italy even after the deposition of
Mussolini by the Fascist Grand Council in July 1943. Germany was fighting on
three fronts, and the German situation became increasingly desperate as the
Russians launched an offensive in the east to coincide with the Normandy
landings of the western allies on 6 June 1944. Morale on the home front
plummeted, as people feared for friends and relatives at the front and suffered
deteriorating conditions at home. Hitler himself became a virtual recluse, making
fewer and fewer public appearances and withdrawing increasingly to his East
Prussian retreat, the ‘Wolf’s Lair’. Wrapped up in their own troubles and
concerns, the majority of German people paid little attention to a phenomenon,
of which they knew more than they would later like to admit, which was taking
place at precisely this time.
HOLOCAUST, RESISTANCE AND DEFEAT
Hitler’s basic aims had been two-fold: to achieve
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